Labour Day

Labour Day

Labour Day (Labor Day in the United States) is an annual holiday to celebrate the achievements of workers. Labour Day has its origins in the labour union movement, specifically the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest.

For most countries, Labour Day is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers' Day, which occurs on 1 May. For other countries, Labour Day is celebrated on a different date, often one with special significance for the labour movement in that country. Labour Day is a public holiday in many countries.

In Canada and the United States, the holiday is celebrated on the first Monday of September and considered the unofficial end of summer, with summer vacations ending and students returning to school around then.

For most countries, "Labour Day" is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers' Day, which occurs on 1 May. Some countries vary the actual date of their celebrations so that the holiday occurs on a Monday close to 1 May.

Some countries have a holiday at or around this date, but it is not a 'Labour day' celebration.

Other dates

Australia

Labour Day in Australia is a public holiday on dates which vary between states and territories. It is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia. In Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March (though the latter calls it Eight Hours Day). In Western Australia, Labour Day is the first Monday in March. In Queensland and the Northern Territory, Labour Day occurs on the first Monday in May (though the latter calls it May Day).[1] It is on the fourth Monday of March in the territory of Christmas Island.

The first march for an eight-hour day by the labour movement occurred in Melbourne on 21 April 1856.[2] On this day stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day. Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as being among the first organised workers in the world to achieve an 8-hour day, with no loss of pay.[3]

Bangladesh

Bangladesh Garment Sramik Sanghati, an organization working for the welfare of garment workers, has requested that 24 April be declared Labour Safety Day in Bangladesh, in memory of the victims of the Rana Plaza building collapse.[4][5]

Bahamas

Labour Day is a national holiday in the Bahamas, celebrated on the first Friday in June in order to create a long weekend for workers.[6] The traditional date of Labour Day in the Bahamas, however, is 7 June, in commemoration of a significant workers' strike that began on that day in 1942. Labour Day is meant to honor and celebrate workers and the importance of their contributions to the nation and society. In the capital city, Nassau, thousands of people come to watch a parade through the streets, which begins at mid-morning. Bands in colorful uniforms, traditional African junkanoo performers, and members of various labour unions and political parties are all part of the procession, which ends up at the Southern Recreation Grounds, where government officials make speeches for the occasion. For many residents and visitors to the Bahamas, the afternoon of Labour Day is a time to relax at home or perhaps visit the beach.

Labour Day (French: Fête du Travail) has been celebrated in Canada on the first Monday in September since the 1880s. The origins of Labour Day in Canada can be traced back to December 1872 when a parade was staged in support of the Toronto Typographical Union's strike for a 58-hour work-week,[7] almost a full decade before a similar event in New York City by the American Knights of Labor, a late 19th-century U.S. labor federation, launched the movement towards the American Labor Day holiday.[8] The Toronto Trades Assembly (TTA) called its 27 unions to demonstrate in support of the Typographical Union who had been on strike since 25 March.[7] George Brown, Canadian politician and editor of the Toronto Globe hit back at his striking employees, pressing police to charge the Typographical Union with "conspiracy."[7] Although the laws criminalising union activity were outdated and had already been abolished in Great Britain, they were still on the books in Canada and police arrested 24 leaders of the Typographical Union. Labour leaders decided to call another similar demonstration on 3 September to protest the arrests. Seven unions marched in Ottawa, prompting a promise by Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald to repeal the "barbarous" anti-union laws.[7] Parliament passed the Trade Union Act on 14 June the following year, and soon all unions were seeking a 54-hour work-week.

The Toronto Trades and Labour Council (successor to the TTA) held similar celebrations every spring. American Peter J. McGuire, co-founder of the American Federation of Labor, was asked to speak at a labour festival in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on 22 July 1882. Returning to the United States, McGuire and the Knights of Labor organised a similar parade based on the Canadian event on 5 September 1882 in New York City, USA. On 23 July 1894, Canadian Prime Minister John Thompson and his government made Labour Day, to be held in September, an official holiday. In the United States, the New York parade became an annual event that year, and in 1894 was adopted by American president Grover Cleveland to compete with International Workers' Day (May Day).

While Labour Day parades and picnics are organised by unions, many Canadians regard Labour Day as the Monday of the last long weekend of summer. Non-union celebrations include picnics, fireworks displays, water activities, and public art events. Since the new school year generally starts right after Labour Day, families with school-age children take it as the last chance to travel before the end of summer.

An old fashioned tradition in Canada and the United States frowns upon the wearing of white after Labour Day. Explanations for this tradition vary; the most common is that white is a summer colour and Labour Day unofficially marks the end of summer. The rule may have been intended as a status symbol for new members of the upper and middle classes in the late 19th and early 20th century.[9]

A Labour Day tradition in Atlantic Canada is the Wharf Rat Rally in Digby, Nova Scotia, while the rest of Canada watches the Labour Day Classic, a Canadian Football League event where rivals like Calgary Stampeders and Edmonton Eskimos, Hamilton Tiger-Cats and Toronto Argonauts (except in 2011 and 2013, due to scheduling conflicts), and Saskatchewan Roughriders and Winnipeg Blue Bombers play on Labour Day weekend. Before the demise of the Ottawa Renegades after the 2005 season, that team played the nearby Montreal Alouettes on Labour Day weekend. Since the 2014 CFL season, when the Ottawa Redblacks began play, the Montreal–Ottawa Labour Day tradition has once again been observed. Likewise, Ontario University Athletics has a long-established tradition to play university football on Labour Day.

The Labour Day parade in Grand Falls-Windsor, Newfoundland started in 1921 and still continues today, over 90 years later. The celebrations go on for three days with a parade on Labour Day Monday.

Jamaica

Before 1961, 24 May was celebrated in Jamaica as Empire Day in honour of the birthday of Queen Victoria and her emancipation of slaves in Jamaica.[10] As its name suggests, the day was used to celebrate the British Empire, complete with flag-raising ceremonies and the singing of patriotic songs. In 1961, Jamaican Chief Minister Norman Washington Manley proposed the replacement of Empire Day with Labour Day, a celebration in commemoration of 23 May 1938, when Alexander Bustamante led a labour rebellion leading to Jamaican independence.

In 1972, Jamaican Prime Minister Michael Manley promoted Labour Day as a showcase for the importance of labour to the development of Jamaica, and a day of voluntary community participation to beneficial projects.[10] Since then, Labour Day has been not only a public holiday but also a day of mass community involvement around the country.

Kazakhstan

Labor Day in Kazakhstan is celebrated on the last Sunday in September. The holiday was officially established in late 2013. In 1995, the government of Kazakhstan replaced International Workers' Day with Kazakhstan People's Unity Day. Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev also instituted a special medal that is awarded to veterans of labor on the occasion of the holiday. Labor Day it is widely celebrated across the country with official speeches, award ceremonies, cultural events, etc. It is a non-working holiday for most citizens of Kazakhstan because it always falls on a weekend.[11]

New Zealand

In New Zealand, Labour Day is a public holiday held on the fourth Monday in October. Its origins are traced back to the eight-hour working day movement that arose in the newly founded Wellington colony in 1840, primarily because of carpenter Samuel Parnell's refusal to work more than eight hours a day. He encouraged other tradesmen also to work for only eight hours a day and in October 1840, a workers' meeting passed a resolution supporting the idea. On 28 October 1890, the 50th anniversary of the eight-hour day was commemorated with a parade. The event was then celebrated annually in late October as either Labour Day or Eight-Hour Demonstration Day. In 1899 government legislated that the day be a public holiday from 1900. The day was celebrated on different days in different provinces. This led to ship owners complaining that seamen were taking excessive holidays by having one Labour Day in one port then another in their next port. In 1910 the government stipulated that the holiday would be observed on the same day throughout the nation.

Trinidad and Tobago

In Trinidad and Tobago, Labour Day is celebrated every 19 June. This holiday was proposed in 1973[12] to be commemorated on the anniversary of the 1937 Butler labour riots.

Ranveer Singh

Ranveer Singh

Ranveer Singh Bhavnani (born 6 July 1985) is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi films. The recipient of several awards, including four Filmfare Awards, Singh is among the highest-paid actors in the country and has featured in Forbes India's Celebrity 100 list since 2012.

After completing a bachelor's degree from Indiana University Bloomington, Singh returned to India to pursue a career in film. He briefly worked in advertising and made his acting debut in 2010 with a leading role in Yash Raj Films' romantic comedy Band Baaja Baaraat. The film emerged as a critical and commercial success, earning him the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut. He gained praise for playing a melancholic thief in the drama Lootera (2013), and established himself with his collaborations with Sanjay Leela Bhansali, beginning with the romance Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (2013).

Singh gained critical acclaim for portraying Bajirao I and Alauddin Khilji in Bhansali's period dramas Bajirao Mastani (2015) and Padmaavat (2018), respectively. He won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for the former and the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for the latter. These along with the action film Simmba (2018), in which he played the title character, rank among the highest-grossing Indian films. He won another Filmfare Award for Best Actor for playing an aspiring rapper in Zoya Akhtar's musical drama Gully Boy (2019). Singh is married to his frequent co-star Deepika Padukone.

Early life and education

Singh was born on 6 July 1985[1] into a Sindhi family in Bombay (now Mumbai), to Anju and Jagjit Singh Bhavnani.[2][3][4] His grandparents moved to Bombay from Karachi, Sindh, in present-day Pakistan, during the Partition of India.[5][6] He has an elder sister named Ritika Bhavnani.[1][7][8][9] Singh is the maternal third cousin of actress Sonam Kapoor daughter of actor Anil Kapoor and wife Sunita Kapoor (née Bhavnani).[10] Singh explains that he dropped his surname Bhavnani, since he felt that the name would have been "too long, too many syllables", thus downplaying his brand as a "saleable commodity".[11]

Singh always aspired to be an actor, participating in several school plays and debates.[12] Once when he had gone for a birthday party, his grandmother asked him to dance and entertain her.[13] Singh remembers that he suddenly jumped in the lawn and started dancing to the song "Chumma Chumma" from the 1991 action film, Hum.[12] He felt the thrill of performing and was interested in acting and dancing.[12] However, after he joined H.R. College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai, Singh realised that getting a break in the film industry was not at all easy, as it was mostly people with a film background who got these opportunities. Feeling that the idea of acting was "too far-fetched", Singh focused on creative writing.[12] He went to the United States where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Indiana University.[8]

At the university, he decided to take acting classes and took up theatre as his minor.[12] After completing his studies and returning to Mumbai in 2007, Singh worked for a few years in advertising as a copywriter, with agencies like O&M and J. Walter Thompson.[8][13] He then worked as an assistant director, but left it to pursue acting. He then decided to send his portfolio to directors.[13] He would go for all kinds of auditions, but did not get any good opportunities, while only getting calls for minor roles: "Everything was so bleak. It was very frustrating. There were times I would think whether I was doing the right thing or not."[13]

Career

Film debut and breakthrough (2010–2014)

In January 2010, Singh was called for an audition by Shanoo Sharma, the head of the casting division for Yash Raj Films.[13] They informed him that it was for a lead role in their film titled Band Baaja Baaraat, a romantic comedy set in the world of wedding planning. Aditya Chopra, the vice president of the company, later saw the audition tapes on video and was impressed by Singh's acting, and decided that he fit the part of Bittoo Sharma, the hero of the film.[14] However, the director Maneesh Sharma needed some more convincing and he was called for a few more auditions over the next two weeks until they were completely convinced of his caliber.[8] After the two weeks of testing, Singh was confirmed for the role of Bittoo, with Anushka Sharma playing the female lead.[14]

Singh described the role of Bittoo Sharma as a typical Delhi boy.[8] To prepare for the role, he spent time with students at the Delhi University campus.[12] Prior to the release of the film, trade analysts were skeptical of the film's commercial potential, citing the middling response to Yash Raj Films' last few productions, the lack of a male star and the fact that the female lead, Anushka Sharma, was by then an "almost-forgotten" actress.[15] However, Band Baaja Baaraat went on to become a sleeper hit. Singh's portrayal of Bittoo was praised, with Anupama Chopra of NDTV writing that Singh was "pitch perfect in the role of the uncouth but good-hearted small town slacker who is a bit of a duffer when it comes to matters of the heart."[16] The film earned approximately ₹214 million (US$3.0 million) at the domestic box office.[17] At the 56th Filmfare Awards, Singh won the award for Best Male Debut.[18]

Following Band Baaja Baarat, Singh signed on for Ladies vs Ricky Bahl, a romantic comedy produced by Chopra and directed by Maneesh Sharma. He played a conman Ricky Bahl who cons girls for a living but finally meets his match. The film co-starred Anushka Sharma, Parineeti Chopra, Dipannita Sharma and Aditi Sharma.[19] According to Singh, the title character had various avatars in the film, including a chirpy, entertaining side and a sinister side.[7] Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India wrote, "Ranveer is, well Ranveer: your average Joe kind of hero who looks convincing enough as Sunny, Deven, Iqbal, Ricky, his sundry avatars."[20] Commercially, Ladies vs Ricky Bahl earned ₹370 million (US$5.2 million) domestically.[21]

Singh's next release was Lootera (2013), a period romance, written and directed by Vikramaditya Motwane, and co-starring Sonakshi Sinha.[22] An adaptation of O. Henry's short story The Last Leaf, Lootera was critically acclaimed.[23][24] Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN wrote that Singh "brings a quiet sensitivity to Varun, and occasionally a smoldering intensity. Offering a finely internalized performance, he leaves a lasting impression."[25] However, Lootera performed poorly at the box office

Singh next starred opposite Deepika Padukone in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's adaptation of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, entitled Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela, in which he played Ram, a Gujarati boy based on the character of Romeo.[27] Bhansali was impressed by Singh's performance in Band Baaja Baaraat and decided to cast him for the film.[28] Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela generated positive reviews from critics, as did Singh's performance.[29] Writing for India Today, Rohit Khilnani commented that "Singh has everything going for him here. His Bollywood hero entry scene lying down on a bike in the song 'Tattad Tattad' is outstanding. He learnt a new language to better his performance for the character Ram and it paid off. In his fourth film he has the presence of a star."[30] The film emerged as Singh's biggest commercial success,[31][32] with worldwide revenues of ₹2.02 billion (US$28 million).[33][34] For his portrayal, he received several recognitions, including a Best Actor nomination at Filmfare.[35]

In 2014, Singh starred as a Bengali criminal in Ali Abbas Zafar's Gunday, alongside Arjun Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra and Irrfan Khan.[36][37] David Chute of Variety praised Singh's screen presence and wrote that he "tucks the movie's center of interest under his arm and takes it with him — even though he has the could-be-thankless "good brother" role".[38] Also, Singh's chemistry with Kapoor was considered by critic Rohit Khilnani to the prime asset of the film.[39] Gunday proved to be Singh's biggest box office opener,[40] and eventually emerged a box-office success with a revenue of ₹1 billion (US$14 million) worldwide.[41] After a cameo appearance in Finding Fanny, Singh starred as a gangster in Shaad Ali's unsuccessful crime drama Kill Dil opposite Parineeti Chopra and Ali Zafar and received negative reviews.[42][43]

Established actor (2015–present)

Clara Rockmore

Clara Rockmore

Clara Reisenberg Rockmore (9 March 1911 – 10 May 1998[2]) was a classical violin prodigy[3] and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument.[4][5][6][7][8] She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg.

Clara Reisenberg was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Lithuanian Jews.[9] She had two elder sisters, Anna and Nadia.[10] Early in her childhood she emerged as a violin prodigy. At the age of four, she became the youngest ever student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied under the prominent violinist Leopold Auer.[3] After the October Revolution the family moved back to Vilnius, and then to Warsaw, before obtaining visas and leaving for the United States in 1921.[10]

In America, Rockmore enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music. As a teenager, tendinitis affected her bow arm, attributed to childhood malnutrition, and resulted in her giving up the violin. However, after meeting fellow immigrant Léon Theremin and being introduced to his electronic instrument, the theremin, she became its most prominent player. She performed widely and helped Theremin to refine his instrument.[11][12]

Career

Rockmore made orchestral appearances in New York and Philadelphia and went on coast-to-coast tours with Paul Robeson, but it was not until 1977 that she released a commercial recording called The Art of the Theremin. The album, which was produced by Bob Moog and Shirleigh Moog, featured Rockmore's theremin playing with piano accompaniment by her sister Nadia.[13] Rockmore’s approach to theremin playing emphasized physical and emotional control.[14]

As she described it herself in an interview: "You must not only hit a note, but you must hit the center of it. You cannot register any of your internal emotion at all. You cannot shake your head, for instance, or sway back and forth on your feet. That would change your tone."[14]

Personal life and death

Although Léon Theremin had proposed to her several times, she married attorney Robert Rockmore, and thereafter used his name professionally. They had no children.[13]

She died in New York City on May 10, 1998, aged 87. Although her health had been in rapid decline for almost a year, she declared her determination to live to see the birth of her great-grandniece, who was born just two days before her death.[13]

Contributions to the theremin

Rockmore's classical training gave her an advantage over the many other theremin performers of the time. The intonation control she acquired as a violinist and her innate absolute pitch were both helpful in playing the instrument.[13]

She had extremely precise, rapid control of her movements, important in playing an instrument that depends on the performer's motion and proximity rather than touch. She developed a unique technique for playing the instrument, including a fingering system that allowed her to perform accurately fast passages and large note leaps without the more familiar portamento, or glide, on theremin.[15]

She also discovered that she could achieve a steadier tone and control the vibrato by keeping the tips of her right-hand thumb and forefinger in contact.[14]

Developmental influence

Rockmore saw limitations of the original instrument and helped to develop the theremin to fulfill her needs. Working together with Léon Theremin her suggestions and changes included increasing the sensitivity of the theremin's volume control to facilitate rapid staccato, lowering the profile of the instrument so the performer is more visible, increasing the sensitivity of the pitch antenna, and increasing range from three octaves to five.[15]

Public influence

By the time Rockmore was playing large scale public concerts, such as New York City's Town Hall in 1938, she was becoming increasingly known for impressing critics with her artistry of the theremin during a time in which much of the general public had come to rather negative conclusions of what was possible on the instrument.[6]

These performances with world class orchestras were also critical in establishing “electronic and experimental music as a viable art form in the public imagination.” [16]

Clara owned an RCA theremin given to her and substantially modified by Theremin. Through his modifications, the instrument's normal 5 to 5.5 octave playable range was expanded by 1.5 octaves. Theremin made several other customizations including improvements to tonal quality and its responsiveness to hand movements. The tubes are also customized and labeled in Theremin's own writing.[citation needed]

This instrument was later restored by Robert Moog in October 1998; it can be viewed at the Clara Rockmore exhibit in the Artist's Gallery of the Musical Instruments Museum in Phoenix, Arizona and is on long-term loan to the museum by Peter Sherman of the Reisenberg family.[17][18]

Albums

The Art of the Theremin (1977)

Clara Rockmore's Lost Theremin Album (2006)

Film and video

Martin, Steven M. (Director) (1995). Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey (Film and DVD). MGM. Retrieved 2017-12-20.

Moog, Robert (Producer) (1998). Clara Rockmore: The Greatest Theremin Virtuosa (Videotape (VHS)). Moog Music and Little Big Films. Archived from the original on 2008-12-22.

Moog, Robert (Producer) (2005). Two Theremin Classics (DVD). Moog Music and Little Big Films.

In popular culture

The Irish electropop band The Garland Cult included the song "Clara Rockmore" on their 2007 album Protect Yourself from Hollywood.

Sean Michaels' novel Us Conductors, the winner of the 2014 Scotiabank Giller Prize, is a fictionalized account of the relationship between Rockmore and Léon Theremin.

Rockmore was the subject of a Google Doodle on March 9, 2016, which would have been her 105th birthday

Chuni Goswami

Chuni Goswami

Subimal "Chuni" Goswami (15 January 1938 – 30 April 2020), commonly known by his nickname Chuni Goswami, was an Indian international footballer and first class cricketer. He was born in Kishoreganj District of undivided Bengal (now in Bangladesh). As a striker, he played 50 international matches representing India. As a first class cricketer, he played Ranji Trophy for Bengal

Football career

Chuni Goswami holds the distinction of playing for a single club, Mohun Bagan, throughout his club career despite numerous offers from other clubs including one reported offer from Tottenham Hotspur.[5]

Club career

Goswami joined the Mohun Bagan Junior Team in 1946 at the age of 8 years. He was a part of the Junior squad up to 1954 and then graduated to the Mohun Bagan senior team. He continued playing for Mohun Bagan till his retirement in 1968. During his stay with the club, he captained the club in 5 seasons from 1960 to 1964.[3][6]

International career

Chuni Goswami made his international debut for India in 1956 during the team's 1-0 victory over the Chinese Olympic team.[6] He went on to play for India in 50 international matches including in Olympics, Asian Games, Asia Cup and Merdeka Cup. He captained India to the Asian Games Gold Medal in 1962 and a Silver in the 1964 Asia Cup in Tel Aviv and in the Merdeka Cup.[7]

International statistics

According to statistics available with the AIFF, Goswami represented India in 36 official international matches, captaining the side in 16 of those, and has 13 international goals to his credit.[8] However, only FIFA official stats are counted here. For more references, visit India team results

باريس سان جيرمان

باريس سان جيرمان

نادي باريس سان جيرمان لكرة القدم (بالفرنسية: Paris Saint-Germain Football Club)‏ ويعرف اختصاراً باسم باريس سان جيرمان (بالفرنسية: Paris Saint-Germain)‏ هو نادي كرة قدم فرنسي تأسس في 12 أغسطس 1970 بعد دمج كل من نادي باريس الذي تأسس في عام 1969 ونادي استاد سان جيرمانوا الذي تأسس في عام 1904، يقع مقره في مدينة باريس الفرنسية. وهو أحد الأعضاء المؤسسين لمجموعة جي–14 للأندية القيادية في أوروبا التي تم إلغاؤها حاليًا واستبدلت بـرابطة الأندية الأوروبية. كانت بداية تأسيس النادي أوائل سبعينيات القرن العشرين نتاج رغبة لسد ثغرة عدم وجود فريق من المستوى العالي يُمثّل العاصمة الفرنسية، ووصل الفريق للدوري الممتاز بعد 4 أعوام من تأسيسه. ورغم حداثة سنّه مقارنة بمنافسيه إلا أنه يُعدّ أكثر الأندية الفرنسية حصداً للألقاب عبر التاريخ بأكثر من ثلاثين بطولة محلياً وقارياً. محلياً، فاز باريس ببطولة الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الأولى 9 مرات، الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية مرة واحدة، وبكأس فرنسا 12 مرات، وببطولة كأس الأبطال الفرنسي 9 مرات، وببطولة كأس الرابطة الفرنسية 8 مرات . بينما، فاز على الصعيد الدولي بكل من كأس الكؤوس الأوروبية وكأس إنترتوتو مرة واحدة. ويعتبر أحد أنجح الأندية الفرنسية، وواحد من ثلاث فرق فرنسية فقط استطاعت الفوز بألقاب أوروبية، مع كل من نادي مرسيليا وأولمبيك ليون.

يلعب الفريق مبارياته الرسمية على ملعب بارك دي برانس (بالفرنسية: Parc des Princes)‏ والذي يعرف باسم حديقة الأمراء، وتبلغ السعة الأجمالية للمتفرجين حوالي 45.127 متفرج. ويطلق على باريس لقب (بالفرنسية: Les Rouges et Bleus)‏ والذي يعني الحمر والزرق، ولهذا فإن اللون الأزرق هو اللون الأساسي لقمصان الفريق، بينما الأحمر هو اللون الاحتياطي. أيضاً باريس هو صاحب أعلى حضور جماهيري في الملاعب الفرنسية بعد نادي مارسيليا يتشارك كل من الفريق الباريسي ونادي مرسيليا في الشعور العدائي بينهم في مجال كرة القدم، فتعتبر مباريات الفريقين من أشهر ديربيات كرة القدم في فرنسا، وتعرف باسم لو كلاسيك (بالفرنسية: Le Classique)‏ أو كلاسيكو فرنسا ببساطة.

في عام 2011 اشترى جهاز قطر للاستثمار النادي الباريسي، مما جعله من أغنى أندية العالم. يرأس النادي حالياً ناصر الخليفي، ويدرّبه الألماني توماس توخل منذ يوليو 2018.

التاريخ

مع نهاية ستينات القرن العشرين قرر مجموعة من كبار رجال الأعمال إنشاء ناد كبير يُمثل عاصمة الأنوار باريس ليرى النادي الوليد النور في 12 أغسطس عام 1970 بدعم من أكثر من 20 ألف مشترك كانوا يرغبون في رؤية ناد كبير في باريس، حيث قام غي كريسون الرئيس المدير العام لكالبرسون وبيار-اتيان غويو نائب رئيس راسينغ كلوب فرنسا، باقناع نادي مسؤولي استاد سان جيرمان بالانضمام إلى المشروع، وصادق الاتحاد الفرنسي على الاندماج بتاريخ 27 أغسطس 1970.

1970–1978: بداية التأسيس

ساهم الفريق الأول لسان جرمان أون-لاي، الذي حجز وقتها مقعده في الدرجة الوطنية (الدرجة الثانية سابقا)، في استمرار النادي الوليد في موسم 1971-1970 حيث حقق النجاح منذ البداية بتتويجه ببطولة الدرجة الثانية واحتفل بصعوده للمرة الاولى لـ"الليج 1".

اكتفى باريس سان جرمان في موسمه الأول في الدرجة الاولى بمرتبة مشرفة هي المركز السادس عشر، وخروجه من دوري ال32 من كأس فرنسا وتميز هذا الموسم بفض الشراكة بين باريس سان جرمان وسانجرمانوا وتحديدا في 16 ايار / مايو، وانضم الفريق الاحترافي إلى نادي مونتروي وواصل مشواره في الدرجة الاولى تحت اسم نادي باريس، في حين أن باريس سان جرمان اعتبر فريقا هاويا وهبط للدرجة الثالثة.

وفي الدرجة الثالثة استطاع الفريق أن يُنهي موسمه الأول في المركز الثاني في مجموعته واستفاد من انسحاب فريق كيفيلي، صاحب المركز الأول، للصعود إلى الدرجة الثانية. ليصعد للدرجة الثانية ابتداء من موسم 1973–74 تزامناً مع تخلى هنري باتريل الذي كان يبحث عن ممولين للنادي عن الرئاسة لصالح دانيال هيشتر، وتقدّم الفريق في بطولة كأس فرنسا رغم أنه كان يشارك من الدرجة الثانية حيث بلغ الدور ربع النهائي، وحل ثانيا في مجموعته في الدوري ليخوض دوراً فاصلاً مع نادي فالينسيان من أجل الصعود إلى الدرجة الاولى، خسر الفريق في الذهاب 2-1 خارج قواعده، لكنه فاز إياباً 2-4 على ملعب بارك دي برينس في 4 يونيو 1974 ليحجز بطاقته في الدرجة الاولى، ولسخرية القدر هبط فريق باريس (شريكه السابق) في العام ذاته إلى الدرجة الثانية، ومنذ ذلك الحين، حافظ باريس سان جرمان على مكانته في الدرجة الاولى.

وفي أول مواسمه في الدرجة الأولى احتلّ المركز الخامس عشر في البطولة بعد تحقيقه لاثنى عشر فوزاً ومثله من التعادلات، وخسر أربعة عشر مرة، ليجمع 37 نقطة. وفي الموسم الثاني في الدرجة الأولى حلّ في المركز الرابع عشر في الدوري، وخرج من ربع نهائي كأس فرنسا على يد أولمبيك ليون،  وتحسن في الموسم الذي يليه؛ حيث حلّ في المركز التاسع في الدوري بـ42 نقطة، ثم في المركز الحادي عشر في موسم 1977–78.

1978-1990: بداية التألق والتواجد مع الكبار

تعتبر هذه الفترة بداية التألّق للفريق على الصعيد المحلي حيث بدأت مع استلام فرانسيس بوريلي مهام رئاسة النادي خلفاً لدانيال هيشتر في يناير / كانون الثاني 1978 وفرض نفسه بقوة في هذه الفترة بحلوله بانتظام في الثلث الأعلى من الترتيب العام، لكن أول ألقابه كانت في كأس فرنسا: في 15 مايو عام 1982، حين حقق اللقب الأول له على حساب سانت ايتيان التي كان يلعب في صفوفه آنذاك ميشيل بلاتيني، ثم حقق اللقب ذاته في 11 يونيو 1983 للمرة الثانية على التوالي على حساب نادي نانت بنتيجة 3-2، ووصل لدوري ربع نهائي من بطولة كأس أوروبا للأندية الفائزة بالكأس وخرج على يد واتيرش البلجيكي، كما أنه أنهى الموسم في المركز الثالث في الدوري، وجاء باريس سان جرمان رابعاً في الدوري، وفي موسم 1984-83 خاض المباراة النهائية لكأس فرنسا للمرة الثالثة على التوالي عام 1985 لكنه خسرها هذه المرة أمام نادي موناكو،

وفي موسم 85-1986 تُوِّج الفريق بلقب بطل الدوري للمرة الأولى وحقق وقتها رقما قياسياً في عدد المباريات دون خسارة حيث بلغت 26 مباراة متتالية،، في 11 أبريل 1986 وبعد الفوز على موناكو (0-1) خلال المرحلة السادسة والثلاثين، توج باريس الذي كان يبتعد بفارق 4 نقاط، وبفارق كبير من الأهداف عن مطارديه المباشرين، بطلاً للدوري الفرنسي للمرة الأولى في تاريخه، بقيادة دومينيك روشتو وجويل باتس وسافيت سوسيتش ولويس فرنانديز، حقق باريس سان جرمان في هذا العام موسما استثنائيا تميز على الخصوص بسلسلة قياسية من 26 مباراة دون خسارة (17 فوزا و9 تعادلات)،

وفي ختام الموسم سجل (23 فوزا، 10 تعادلات، 5 هزائم)، وصرح جيرار هوييه الذي كان مدربا للفريق وقتها:

«"إنه اكبر تتويج في مسيرتي، لتحقيق إنجاز مماثل، يجب أن تملك لاعبين جيدين، لاعبو باريس سان جرمان لديهم الموهبة ويستحقون هذا اللقب.»

في نهاية هذه الحقبة كان الفريق الباريسي قد ظفر بلقبين في كأس فرنسا ولقباً في بطولة الدوري

1990-2000: الحقبة الذهبية ومقارعة كبار أوروبا

تعتبر حقبة التسعينيات حقبة ذهبية للنادي الباريسي رغم أن بدايتها لم تكن جيدة حيث كان موسم 1991-90 مفصلياً في تاريخ النادي، كان النادي يبحث في الكواليس عن دعم خارجي لمواجهة الصعوبات المالية، وبعد أن أصبح جمعية بموجب قانون 1901 وبانظمة معززة خلال جمعيته العمومية في 13 ديسمبر 1990؛ توص باريس سان جرمان أواخر مايو 1991 لاتفاق مع قناة كانال + وبلدية باريس لتبني الفريق،

استعاد باريس عافيته بعد تحديثه وتعيين مدرب جديد على رأس إدارته الفنية هو البرتغالي ارتور جورج، منذ ذلك الحين وهو يحجز مقعده في الكؤوس الأوروبية، حيث حقق مساراً تصاعديا قاده إلى نتائج باهرة موسم 1993-92 حيث وصل لنصف النهائي في كأس الاتحاد الأوروبي، بعد أن أقصى ريال مدريد في ربع النهائي بفوزه عليه 4-1 في مجموع المباراتين،  في مارس 1993، وحقق المركز الثاني في الدوري، وفاز بلقب كأس فرنسا للمرة الثالثة في تاريخه،

موسم 1994-93: كان هذا الموسم متميزاً للنادي أيضاً حيث تمكن من إحراز اللقب الثاني له في الدوري مع رقم قياسي جديد في عدد المباريات دون خسارة (27 مباراة على التوالي)، ووصل لنصف نهائي كأس الكؤوس الأوروبية وخرج على يد نادي آرسنال الإنجليزي.

موسم 1995-94: أفضل موسم للنادي في تاريخه بدأه بطل فرنسا بالتعاقد مع المدرب لويس فرنانديز أحد أساطير النادي في الثمانينات فتألق على الصعيد المحلي بإحرازه لأول ثنائية في تاريخه، بدأها في انتزاعه لبطولة كأس الرابطة الفرنسية للمرة الأولى في تاريخه وأتبعها باسترجاعه لبطولته المفضلة كأس فرنسا والظفر بها للمرة الرابعة في تاريخه، وعلى الصعيد الأوروبي قدّم النادي أفضل موسم له على الإطلاق بمشاركته للمرة الثانية بعد غياب لثماني سنوات، وضم سان جرمان في صفوفه، البرازيلي راي والفرنسي دافيد جينولا والليبيري جورج ويا،

أوقعته القرعة في مجموعة صعبة ضمت بايرن ميونيخ وسبارتاك موسكو ودينامو كييف لكنه لم يشعر بأي عقدة نقص وذلك بعد إنهائه دور المجموعات في صدارة المجموعة محققا ستة انتصارات متتالية (في إنجاز نادر الحدوث) بعد أن تغلب على جميع خصومه بالفوز ذهاباً وإياباً، ثم تخطى سان جرمان العملاق الإسباني برشلونة في ربع النهائي بعد التعادل 1-1 في ملعب الكامب نو، وفوز باريس في البارك دي برينس بهدفين لواحد قبل أن يخرج على يد العملاق الإيطالي إيه سي ميلان في نصف النهائي (1-صفر و2-صفر).

موسم 1996-95: كان هذا الموسم الذي صادف الذكرى ال25 لتأسيس النادي موسماً مُكملاً لسابقيه حيث دخله الفريق بعد ثلاث أدوار نصف نهائية متتالية في الكأس القارية، وكان الطموح هذه المرة هو إحراز الكأس الأوروبية الأولى في تاريخه، أزاح الفريق في طريقه كلاً من سلتيك غلاسكو الإسكتلندي وبارما الإيطالي وديبورتيفو لا كورونيا الإسباني للوصول للمباراة النهائية في بروكسل في الثامن من مايو 1996 أمام رابيد فيينا النمساوي وحقق مسعاه باللقب القاري الأول بفضل هدف لبرونو نغوتي.

موسم 1997-96: بدأ الموسم بالتعاقد مع إدارة فنية جديدة بقيادة ريكاردو غوميز (مدير عام) وجويل باتس (مدرب)، وعلى الرغم من تجديد دماء الفريق إلا أنه نجح في التأهل مرة أخرى إلى المباراة النهائية لكأس الكؤوس الأوروبية وخسرها أمام نادي برشلونة الإسباني ونجمه البرازيلي الظاهرة رونالدو، هذه الوصافة جعلت باريس سان جرمان يشارك في مسابقة دوري أبطال أوروبا في الموسم الموالي.

وشهد عام 1997 تغييرا في ملكية وأسهم النادي؛ فبعد زيادة رأس المال، الذي عزز المركز المالي للنادي (اجتماع الجمعية العامة غير العادية في 21 أبريل 1997)، تغيرت ملكية النادي وأصبحت على النحو التالي: 56,7% لكانال بلوس، و34% للجمعية، و9,3% للأقلية

موسم 1998-97: حقق باريس سان جرمان نتائج مخيبة على الصعيد الأوروبي حيث خرج للمرة الأولى في عهد كانال بلوس قبل الدور ربع النهائي لمسابقة دوري أبطال أوروبا، كما عانى الأمرين في الدوري، ولكن عوض ذلك على صعيد المسابقات حينما خرج النادي بقيادة نجمه القائد البرازيلي راي بلقبين محليين هما كأس فرنسا وكأس الرابطة (في ثاني ثنائية للفريق في ظرف ثلاث سنوات.

موسم 1999-98: كان موسم التغيير داخل النادي بعد سبعة مواسم من الرئاسة، ترك ميشال دينيزو منصبه لشارل بييتري الذي كان رئيس الفرع متعدد الرياضات للنادي منذ عام 1992 وعين بييتري الذي شغل في السابق منصب مدير قسم الرياضات في كانال بلوس، الان جيريس، أحد نجوم ما يُعرف بـ"الرباعي السحري الشهير للمنتخب الفرنسي" (إلى جانب ميشال بلاتيني وجان تيغانا ولويس فرنانديز)، على رأس الإدارة الفنية للنادي، لكن الاقصاء المبكر "نسبياً" من دور ال16 لمسابقة كأس الكؤوس الأوروبية ثم البداية الصعبة في الدوري المحلي عجلت باقالته في نوفمبر ليحلّ مكانه أرتور جورج ودينيس تروش اللذان كانت مهمتها إعادة الهيبة لصفوف الفريق وبعد شهر واحد؛ تخلى بييتري عن منصب الرئاسة للوران بيربير المدير العام المساعد المكلف بالشؤون المالية لكانال بلوس، ليُعين جان لوك لامارش مديرا رياضيا للفريق، لكن الفريق فشل في الخروج من أزمة النتائج، وبعد الخروج المزدوج من مسابقتي كأس فرنسا وكأس الرابطة، استقال ارتور جورج من منصبه في منتصف شهر مارس، وحل مكانه فيليب بيرجيرو الذي كان يشغل وقتها المدرب المساعد لمدرب حراس المرمى، وبعدما أنقذ النادي من الهبوط إلى الدرجة الثانية، تابع بيرجيرو مهمته على رأس الفريق، ويُحقق نتائج مذهلة أعادت الفريق لمصاف الكبار والمشاركة في مسابقة دوري أبطال أوروبا مجدداً.

PSG

PSG

Paris Saint-Germain Football Club (French pronunciation: ​[paʁi sɛ̃ ʒɛʁmɛ̃]), commonly referred to as Paris Saint-Germain, Paris SG, or simply Paris or PSG, is a French professional football club based in Paris.[1] Founded in 1970, the club has traditionally worn red, blue and white kits.[1][2] PSG has played their home matches in the 47,929-capacity Parc des Princes, in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, since 1974.[3][4] The club plays in the highest tier of French football, Ligue 1.[1]

The Parisian club established itself as a major force in France, and one of the major forces of European football in the 2010s. PSG have won 41 titles, making it the most successful French club in history by this measure.[1][5] PSG are also the club with most consecutive seasons playing in the top-flight (they have been in Ligue 1 for 46 seasons since 1974),[6] one of only two French clubs to have won a major European title,[7] the most popular football club in France,[8] and one of the most widely supported teams in the world.[9]

Domestically, the Parisians have won nine Ligue 1 titles, a record twelve Coupe de France, a record eight Coupe de la Ligue, and a record nine Trophée des Champions titles. In European football, they have won one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup. The capital club has also won one Ligue 2, regarded as a minor official title.[5] PSG have a long-standing rivalry with Olympique de Marseille. The duo contest French football's most notorious match, known as Le Classique.[10]

The State of Qatar, through its shareholding organisation Qatar Sports Investments (QSI), has been the club's owner since 2011.[11] The takeover made Paris Saint-Germain the richest club in France and one of the wealthiest in the world.[12] As of the 2018–19 season, PSG have the fifth-highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of €636m according to Deloitte, and are the world's eleventh most valuable football club, worth €825m according to Forbes

Paris Saint-Germain Football Club was founded on 12 August 1970 after the merger of Paris Football Club and Stade Saint-Germain.[1] PSG made an immediate impact, winning promotion to Ligue 1 and claiming the Ligue 2 title in their first season.[4][15] Their momentum was soon checked, however, and the club split in 1972.[4] Paris FC remained in Ligue 1, while PSG were administratively relegated to Division 3.[16][17] PSG got their revenge in 1974 when they returned to Ligue 1 and Paris FC slipped into the division below.[18] The club also moved into Parc des Princes that same year.[4][1]

The club's trophy cabinet welcomed its first major silverware in the shape of the Coupe de France in 1982, during a decade marked by players such as Safet Sušić, Luis Fernández and Dominique Rocheteau.[4][1] PSG claimed their maiden league title in 1986 and immediately went into decline.[7][19] But a takeover by television giants Canal+ revitalised the club and PSG entered their golden era.[7][20] Led by David Ginola, George Weah and Raí, the club won nine trophies during the 1990s.[1][19] Most notably, the Parisians claimed a second league title in 1994 and their crowning glory, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1996.[4][19]

At the start of the 21st century, PSG struggled to rescale the heights despite the magic of Ronaldinho and the goals of Pauleta.[1] Five more trophies arrived in the form of three Coupe de France, one Coupe de la Ligue and one UEFA Intertoto Cup, but the club became better known for lurching from one high-profile crisis to another.[5][19] Indeed, Paris Saint-Germain spent two seasons staving off relegations that were only very narrowly avoided.[20]

This changed in 2011 with the arrival of new majority shareholders Qatar Sports Investments (QSI).[12] Since the buyout, PSG have signed several stars like Zlatan Ibrahimović, Thiago Silva, Edinson Cavani, Neymar and Kylian Mbappé, and have dominated French football.[5][21][22] Despite this, the UEFA Champions League has proven to be a trophy beyond their reach.[21][22] PSG have never even made it to the semifinals since 2012, reaching the quarterfinals on five occasions as well as exiting the competition at the last-16 round three times.[23][24]

Club identity

Colours and mascot

Since their foundation, Paris Saint-Germain have always represented both the city of Paris and the nearby royal town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[20] As a result, red, blue and white are the club's traditional colours.[25] The red and blue are Parisian colours, a nod to revolutionary figures Lafayette and Jean Sylvain Bailly, and the white is a symbol of French royalty and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[18][25]

On the club's crest, the Eiffel Tower in red and the blue background represent Paris, while the fleur de lys in white is a hint to the coat of arms of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[18][25] The fleur de lys is a royal symbol as well and recalls that French King Louis XIV was born in the town.[25] Throughout its history, PSG have brandished several different crests, but all of them have featured the club's three historical colours.[26]

Likewise, PSG's most iconic shirts have been predominantly red, blue or white, with the remaining two colours included as well.[2] The club's official mascot, Germain the Lynx, also sports PSG's traditional colours.[18] It was unveiled during the 2010 Tournoi de Paris in commemoration of the club's 40th anniversary, and can be seen entertaining kids in the stands of Parc des Princes or near the pitch with the players during the warm-up.[27]

Anthems and mottos

"Allez Paris-Saint-Germain!" is the club's official anthem.[28][29] The hymn was originally recorded by Les Parisiens in 1977 at the initiative of historical PSG leader and music producer Charles Talar, who produced and released it under his homonym record label.[28][30] Chanted by supporters, the anthem is also usually played before every match at Parc des Princes.[28][31] In 2010, as part of its 40th anniversary celebrations, the club recorded a new version to the tune of "Go West" by Village People.[18][27] Its lyrics were also rewritten with suggestions made by fans.[29]

"Ô Ville Lumière" ("Oh City of Light"), to the tune of "Flower of Scotland," is another veritable club anthem.[32][33] PSG gave it official status in 2015 when the club announced it would accompany the players' entry into the field, a tradition which began in 1992 with the song "Who Said I Would" by Phill Collins.[32] Supporters' groups from the Boulogne and Auteuil stands also have several different chants, most notably "Le Parc est à nous" ("The Parc is ours"), "Paris est magique!" ("Paris is magical!") and "Ici, c'est Paris!" ("This is Paris!").[18][34] Both stands began exchanging these chants during PSG matches in the 1990s.[31][35][36] "Paris est magique!" and "Ici, c'est Paris!" also became the club's most iconic mottos or slogans.[18][37][38]

Iconic shirts

During their first three seasons of existence, Paris Saint-Germain wore a red shirt.[2] This kit also featured white shorts and blue socks to bring together the three colours of the club: the red and blue of Paris, and the white of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[39] During the 2010–11 season, PSG wore a red home shirt to commemorate their 40th anniversary

The connection between PSG and the city's fashion houses is a longstanding one. French fashion designer Daniel Hechter became club president in 1973 and designed PSG's traditional look that same year: a red vertical stripe, bordered with white, on a blue background.[39][41] Hechter based his creation on the red-and-white jersey worn by Ajax, the Dutch champion dominating European competition at the time, but with the French flag in mind.[41][39][42]

First worn between 1973 and 1981, the so-called "Hechter shirt" returned as PSG's home identity in 1994 and has remained so ever since despite several experiments from Nike.[2][39][43][44] PSG stars from the 1990s and 2000s like Raí, Ronaldinho and Pauleta are associated with the "Hechter shirt." It was with that jersey that PSG reached five European semi-finals in a row (1993–1997), claimed the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1995–96 and achieved the (first) eight consecutive wins against arch-rivals Olympique de Marseille (2002–2004).[2]

But it was with one of the club's iconic away outfits that fans saw the first big Paris Saint-Germain team that won two Coupe de France titles (1982, 1983), experienced their first European campaign in 1983, and claimed their maiden league crown in 1986. This kit was made of a white shirt with blue and red vertical stripes on the left.[2][39] Promoted by club president Francis Borelli, it became PSG's home identity from 1981 until 1993.[43] PSG legends from the 1980s like Safet Sušić, Luis Fernández and Dominique Bathenay are associated with this white jersey.[2][44]

Crest evolution

The original crest of the club, also known as the Paris FC logo, was used until 1973.[39][42] It featured a ball with a vessel (a historic symbol of Paris). This crest logically changed shortly after Paris Saint-Germain split from Paris FC in 1972. Like with the club's iconic shirt, PSG president and fashion designer Daniel Hechter also created its historic crest in 1973. Known as the Eiffel Tower logo, it added Saint-Germain-en-Laye symbols for the first time: the fleur de lys and the cradle, representing royalty and the birthplace of French King Louis XIV in the town, respectively. The new crest mainly consisted of the Eiffel Tower in red against a blue background with the cradle and the fleur de lys between the tower's legs.[26][42]

Parc des Princes was added to the crest in 1980.[26] This logo lasted until 1991 with the exception of the 1986–87 and 1987–88 seasons when the club used a special logo in support of the Paris candidature for the 1992 Summer Olympics.[26][45] The stadium was removed from the crest in 1991. Former PSG owners Canal+ tried to replace the iconic crest in 1993. The new model had the acronym "PSG" and underneath it "Paris Saint-Germain." Under pressure from supporters, the traditional crest returned in 1995 with "Paris Saint-Germain" above the tower and "1970" underneath its legs. This crest went through a slight facelift in 2002.[26]

Under the leadership of their Qatari owners and club president Nasser Al-Khelaifi, the club requested a major makeover of the Eiffel Tower crest in 2013. The new logotype clearly puts forward the brand “Paris” instead of “Paris Saint-Germain.” PSG's logo was redrawn, making the word “Paris” very big, above a large Eiffel Tower. Underneath it, “Saint-Germain,” written in smaller letters, remains associated with the fleur-de-lis, its emblem.[37][46] In contrast, Louis XIV's cradle and the club's founding year "1970" were left out.[46] As PSG deputy general manager Jean-Claude Blanc said: “We are called Paris Saint-Germain but, above all, we are called Paris.

Warehouse

Warehouse

A warehouse is a building for storing goods.[1][2] Warehouses are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers, transport businesses, customs, etc. They are usually large plain buildings in industrial parks on the outskirts of cities, towns or villages.

They usually have loading docks to load and unload goods from trucks. Sometimes warehouses are designed for the loading and unloading of goods directly from railways, airports, or seaports. They often have cranes and forklifts for moving goods, which are usually placed on ISO standard pallets loaded into pallet racks. Stored goods can include any raw materials, packing materials, spare parts, components, or finished goods associated with agriculture, manufacturing, and production. In India and Hong Kong, a warehouse may be referred to as a godown.[3] There are also godowns in the Shanghai Bund.

History

Prehistory and ancient history

A warehouse can be defined functionally as a building in which to store bulk produce or goods (wares) for commercial purposes. The built form of warehouse structures throughout time depends on many contexts: materials, technologies, sites, and cultures.

In this sense, the warehouse postdates the need for communal or state-based mass storage of surplus food. Prehistoric civilizations relied on family- or community-owned storage pits, or ‘palace’ storerooms, such as at Knossos, to protect surplus food. The archaeologist Colin Renfrew argued that gathering and storing agricultural surpluses in Bronze Age Minoan ‘palaces’ was a critical ingredient in the formation of proto-state power

The need for warehouses developed in societies in which trade reached a critical mass requiring storage at some point in the exchange process. This was highly evident in ancient Rome, where the horreum (pl. horrea) became a standard building form.[5]  The most studied examples are in Ostia, the port city that served Rome. The Horrea Galbae, a warehouse complex on the road towards Ostia, demonstrates that these buildings could be substantial, even by modern standards. Galba's horrea complex contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m²). As a point of reference, less than half of U.S. warehouses today are larger than 100,000 square feet (9290 m²).[6]

Medieval Europe

The need for a warehouse implies having quantities of goods too big to be stored in a domestic storeroom. But as attested by legislation concerning the levy of duties, some medieval merchants across Europe commonly kept goods in their large household storerooms, often on the ground floor or cellars.[7][8] An example is the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, the substantial quarters of German traders in Venice, which combined a dwelling, warehouse, market and quarters for travellers.[9]

From the Middle Ages on, dedicated warehouses were constructed around ports and other commercial hubs to facilitate large-scale trade. The warehouses of the trading port Bryggen in Bergen, Norway (now a World Heritage site), demonstrate characteristic European gabled timber forms dating from the late Middle Ages, though what remains today was largely rebuilt in the same traditional style following great fires in 1702 and 1955.

Industrial revolution

During the industrial revolution of the mid 18th century, the function of warehouses evolved and became more specialised. The mass production of goods launched by the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries fuelled the development of larger and more specialised warehouses, usually located close to transport hubs on canals, at railways and portside. Specialisation of tasks is characteristic of the factory system, which developed in British textile mills and potteries in the mid-late 1700s. Factory processes speeded up work and deskilled labour, bringing new profits to capital investment.

Warehouses also fulfill a range of commercial functions besides simple storage, exemplified by Manchester's cotton warehouses and Australian wool stores: receiving, stockpiling and despatching goods; displaying goods for commercial buyers; packing, checking and labelling orders, and dispatching them.

The utilitarian architecture of warehouses responded fast to emerging technologies. Before and into the nineteenth century, the basic European warehouse was built of load-bearing masonry walls or heavy-framed timber with a suitable external cladding. Inside, heavy timber posts supported timber beams and joists for the upper levels, rarely more than four to five stories high.

A gabled roof was conventional, with a gate in the gable facing the street, rail lines or port for a crane to hoist goods into the window-gates on each floor below. Convenient access for road transport was built-in via very large doors on the ground floor. If not in a separate building, office and display spaces were located on the ground or first floor.

Technological innovations of the early 19th century changed the shape of warehouses and the work performed inside them: cast iron columns and later, moulded steel posts; saw-tooth roofs; and steam power. All (except steel) were adopted quickly and were in common use by the middle of the 19th century.

Strong, slender cast iron columns began to replace masonry piers or timber posts to carry levels above the ground floor. As modern steel framing developed in the late 19th century, its strength and constructability enabled the first skyscrapers. Steel girders replaced timber beams, increasing the span of internal bays in the warehouse.

The saw-tooth roof brought natural light to the top story of the warehouse. It transformed the shape of the warehouse, from the traditional peaked hip or gable to an essentially flat roof form that was often hidden behind a parapet. Warehouse buildings now became strongly horizontal. Inside the top floor, the vertical glazed pane of each saw-tooth enabled natural lighting over displayed goods, improving buyer inspection.

Hoists and cranes driven by steam power expanded the capacity of manual labour to lift and move heavy goods.

20th century

Two new power sources, hydraulics and electricity, re-shaped warehouse design and practice at the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century.

Public hydraulic power networks were constructed in many large industrial cities around the world in the 1870s-80s, exemplified by Manchester. They were highly effective to power cranes and lifts, whose application in warehouses served taller buildings and enabled new labour efficiencies.

Public electricity networks emerged in the 1890s. They were used at first mainly for lighting and soon to electrify lifts, making possible taller, more efficient warehouses. It took several decades for electrical power to be distributed widely throughout cities in the western world.

20th-century technologies made warehousing ever more efficient. Electricity became widely available and transformed lighting, security, lifting and transport from the 1900s. The internal combustion engine, developed in the late 19th century, was installed in mass-produced vehicles from the 1910s. It not only reshaped transport methods but enabled many applications as a compact, portable power plant, wherever small engines were needed.

The forklift truck was invented in the early 20th century and came into wide use after World War II. Forklifts transformed the possibilities of multi-level pallet racking of goods in taller, single-level steel-framed buildings for higher storage density. The forklift, and its load fixed to a uniform pallet, enabled the rise of logistic approaches to storage in the later 20th century.

Always a building of function, in the late 20th century warehouses began to adapt to standardisation, mechanisation, technological innovation and changes in supply chain methods.

Andy Cole

Andy Cole

Andrew Alexander Cole (born 15 October 1971) is an English former professional footballer. Playing as a striker, his career lasted from 1988 to 2008. He is most notably remembered for his time in the Premier League, with Manchester United, where he spent six years of his career, winning numerous trophies in the process.

He also played in the top division of English football for Arsenal, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, Fulham, Manchester City, Portsmouth and Sunderland, as well as in the Football League for Bristol City, Birmingham City, Burnley and Nottingham Forest. He is the third-highest goalscorer in Premier League history with 187 goals.

Cole has the distinction of being one of the few players in England to have swept all possible honours in the English game, including the PFA Young Player of the Year award, as well as the coveted UEFA Champions League title. Cole was also capped 15 times for the England national team between 1995 and 2001, scoring once against Albania in a 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifier.

Club career

Early career

Cole began his career as a youth player for Arsenal on leaving school in 1988, signing professional in 1989. He made his only league appearance for Arsenal, aged 19, as a substitute against Sheffield United at Highbury during a First Division match on 29 December 1990. Arsenal won 4–1 but Cole did not score. He also made a substitute appearance against Tottenham Hotspur in the Charity Shield in 1991 and almost made an immediate impact, hitting the side netting from outside the penalty area.[3] The following season, Cole was loaned to Fulham in the Third Division, where he scored 3 goals in 13 matches.

Cole joined Second Division Bristol City on loan in March 1992 before signing in a £500,000 permanent deal in the summer of 1992, at the time becoming their most expensive player. Having proved himself as a competent young goalscorer with Bristol City (who began the 1992–93 season in the new Football League Division One following the creation of the Premier League), Cole was quickly one of the hottest prospects in England and his name was regularly linked with Premier League clubs throughout the 1992–93 season.

Newcastle United

In February 1993, Division One leaders Newcastle United broke their club transfer record by paying £1.75 million to sign Cole. He then scored 12 goals in as many league matches as the Magpies cruised to the Division One title and won promotion to the Premier League. His 12 goals included two hat-tricks, the first against Barnsley on 7 April, the second on the final day of the season in a 7–1 hammering of Leicester City.[4] He also scored the first of the club's two goals in their 2–0 promotion clinching win over Grimsby Town at Blundell Park on 4 May.[5]

After David Kelly was sold to Wolverhampton Wanderers, manager Kevin Keegan brought in Peter Beardsley as Cole's strike partner for the 1993–94 Premier League campaign.

Cole scored 34 goals in 40 matches during Newcastle's first Premier League season as they finished third and qualified for the UEFA Cup. Cole scored 41 total goals in all competitions – breaking the club's goalscoring record which had been set by Hughie Gallacher nearly 70 years earlier (Gallacher still holds the record for the highest number of league goals in a season with 36). His first top division goal was in a 1–1 draw against defending league champions Manchester United (who went on to win the double) at Old Trafford on 21 August. This was Newcastle's first goal in the Premier League.[6]

Exactly three months later, Cole scored all three goals as the Magpies crushed Liverpool 3–0 at home. Another hat-trick followed against Coventry City in late February and with Peter Beardsley almost as lethal as his strike partner, Newcastle finished third in the league and qualified for the UEFA Cup for the first time since the 1970s.[7] Cole was subsequently voted PFA Young Player of the Year for that season.

Cole then scored 9 goals in 18 Premier League matches for Newcastle after the start of the 1994–95 season, and also scored a hat-trick against Royal Antwerp in the UEFA Cup.[8]

In all, Cole scored 68 goals in 84 matches for Newcastle, giving him a strike rate of 81%. In terms of goals per match for Newcastle, only Hughie Gallacher has a better record.[citation needed] Cole's last goal for the Magpies came in the 1–1 home draw with Ipswich Town on 26 November 1994.[9]

Manchester United

On 10 January 1995, Cole was suddenly sold in a shock deal to Manchester United for a deal worth £7 million – £6 million cash plus £1 million-rated Keith Gillespie going in the opposite direction, setting a new record for the most expensive British transfer.

Despite joining halfway through the 1994–95 season, Cole still managed to score 12 goals in just 18 Premier League matches for United. This included his first, the winner in a 1–0 victory over Aston Villa on 4 February at Old Trafford and five in the 9–0 rout of Ipswich Town, making him the first player to score five goals in a Premier League match.

However, Cole missed two goal chances in the final minutes against West Ham United on the final day of the season as they could only manage a 1–1 draw and the league title went to Blackburn Rovers instead. He was cup-tied for the FA Cup Final a week later. Without him, United lost to Everton 1–0. United were also without the banned Eric Cantona and the injured Andrei Kanchelskis, the club's two other highest scoring players that season.

Cole's first full season in 1995–96 with Manchester United proved to be difficult, as Cole struggled to find his trademark form in a side now built around the much heralded return of Eric Cantona. Though Cole scored in four-straight matches during the winter, including an important opening goal in United's 2–0 defeat of title rivals Newcastle United on 27 December, Cole was badgered by fans and critics alike across much of the season for only scoring 14 times and missing many chances. However, Cole picked up his form in the business end of the season and scored critical goals including the equaliser in the FA Cup semi-final against Chelsea to help send United to Wembley Stadium again. He then collected his first Premier League title winners medal and scored the second goal in United's 3–0 defeat of Middlesbrough on the final day of the season to help United win the Premier League title for the third time in four years. He also played in their FA Cup final victory to become part of England's first ever side to win the double twice.

Before the 1996–97 season began, Cole had to deal with being offered to Blackburn Rovers as part-exchange in a £12 million deal that would have brought Alan Shearer to Old Trafford, but the offer was rejected and Shearer joined Newcastle instead. Despite Alex Ferguson's clear indication to Cole that he was looking for another striker, after the Shearer deal fell through, Cole fought to stay at the club and was handed the number 9 shirt, having previously worn 17. The arrival of Ole Gunnar Solskjær – and being the victim of two broken legs suffered after a tackle by Neil Ruddock in a reserve match against Liverpool,[10] restricted Cole's first-team chances further. However, he managed to recover by December that year and still played in 20 Premier League matches (ten as a substitute) for the season. Cole then ended the season strongly with several crucial goals in both the league (such as away at title rivals Arsenal), and in the UEFA Champions League (where he scored a goal voted the season's best European goal against Porto) to complete his comeback from injury. Cole then scored the title sealing goal in a landmark 3–1 win for United at Anfield – the scene of his broken legs just half a season earlier – against Roy Evans' "Spice Boys" Liverpool team and thereby aiding United in winning their fourth title in five years, with Cole winning another Premier League title medal.

For the 1997–98 season, the retirement of Eric Cantona saw Cole emerge as first choice striker once again, and he discovered his best form ever for the club. He became the joint top goalscorer in the Premier League during the course of the season with 18 goals, including a slew of spectacular goals, one of which (a chip against Everton) had the fans' vote as the Manchester United goal of the season. Cole also developed a strong partnership with Teddy Sheringham (despite considerable personal friction between the two), but United finished trophyless for only the second time in nine seasons as they lost to Arsenal in the end. Cole achieved several personal landmarks in this campaign, scoring his first European hat-trick for the club in an away match at Feyenoord, as well as ending the season as runner-up in the PFA Players' Player of the Year award to Arsenal's Dennis Bergkamp. Despite this accreditation, and being the leading goalscorer in all competitions that season with 25, Cole was omitted from England's 1998 FIFA World Cup squad by then-manager Glenn Hoddle.[8] Cole remained upbeat when interviewed and when asked about his new-found return to success, he claimed he had found freedom in his life after the injuries of the previous season, saying he had great joy with his newborn son and lived for him and his family in his faith as a born-again Christian.[citation needed] He also claimed the friendship of Ryan Giggs, his roommate on away matches, was a major motivating factor through the tough times when fans doubted him at United.[citation needed]

Cole faced competition from new signing Dwight Yorke, Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær during the 1998–99 season, but ended up developing an immensely successful partnership with Yorke. The two contributed 53 goals between them and were rated as one of the most feared attacking partnerships in Europe, with the pair scoring against sides like Barcelona away at the Camp Nou, and repeating the form all season with incredible one-touch passes and assists that at times seemed to demonstrate a telepathic understanding. Cole played a key role in the side's unique treble of the Premier League title, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League. Cole scored the winning goal in United's final Premier League match of the season against Tottenham Hotspur, a result which meant United finished one point ahead of rivals Arsenal to win the Premier League title. He also scored United's third and winning goal in their Champions League semi-final second leg against Juventus, sealing their place in the final for the first time in over 30 years. Also in this season, Cole scored his 100th Premier League goal in a top-of-the-table clash against Arsenal at Old Trafford on 17 February; the match ended 1–1.

During United's pre-season tour of Australia in July 1999, Cole was involved in a horror tackle which left 19-year-old Australian defender Simon Colosimo sidelined for six months and requiring a complete knee reconstruction. Before the injury, Colosimo was one of Australia's best young players and was about to make a big money move to Europe, and was never able to complete a career in Europe, despite a handful of appearances for Manchester City.

Cole was United's top scorer again in 1999–2000 with 19 goals in 28 Premier League matches. He collected his fourth Premier League title medal in five seasons, and scored over 20 goals in all competitions for the third successive season. Cole scored many goals for United including the only goal of the game in their top-of-the-table clash against their closest rivals Leeds United. He also joined an elite group during this season by scoring his 100th goal for the club in a 2–2 draw against Wimbledon.

Another title followed in 2000–01 when, despite suffering from an injury that restricted his appearances, Cole scored 13 goals in all competitions, including four in the UEFA Champions League, allowing him (at the time) to become Manchester United's record goal scorer in European competition of all-time.

The following 2001–02 season saw Cole face competition from new signing Ruud van Nistelrooy, as well as Dwight Yorke, Ole Gunnar Solskjær and also Paul Scholes for places up front, with Sir Alex Ferguson adopting a more conservative approach, especially in European matches, by playing Scholes behind Van Nistelrooy with Roy Keane and Juan Sebastián Verón in a three-man midfield. Despite this, Cole managed to score seven goals before leaving for Blackburn Rovers after falling behind to the formidable partnership of Van Nistelrooy and Solskjær, forcing him into a "super sub" role.

Cole made one last appearance for Manchester United in the UEFA Celebration Match six years later, on 13 March 2007, coming on at half-time for a friendly match between Manchester United and a European XI, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the European Community and 50 years of Manchester United in the European Cup.

Blackburn Rovers

The arrival of Ruud van Nistelrooy and Juan Sebastián Verón counted against Cole's first-team chances in the 2001–02 season, and on 29 December 2001, Cole was sold to Blackburn Rovers for £8 million.[2] Within two months of arriving, he had collected a League Cup winners medal, scoring the winning goal for Blackburn in the final against Tottenham Hotspur, who were managed by the former England manager and open critic of Cole, Glenn Hoddle. This victory meant that, in the space of seven seasons, Cole had won all four domestic trophies plus a European trophy. Cole ended the season with a total of 18 goals in all competitions, 5 for Manchester United and 13 in just 20 matches for Blackburn.

Rovers finished sixth the following season and qualified for the UEFA Cup. That campaign saw Cole reunited with Dwight Yorke, who had signed for Blackburn from Manchester United for £2 million in July 2002.

Cole had a frustrating season in 2003–04 season, as Rovers slid into the bottom half of the Premier League, finishing 15th. He scored 11 goals but his relationship with manager Graeme Souness hit rock bottom after Cole reported him to the Professional Footballers' Association ("PFA") accusing him of unfair treatment. Cole scored 37 goals in 100 appearances in all competitions for Blackburn.

Later career and retirement

Thirteen years after spending a month on loan at Fulham, Cole returned to Craven Cottage for the 2004–05 season, joining them on a one-year contract.[11] He was the club's top scorer and scored one of the goals of the season against Liverpool. Despite this successful period at Fulham, he decided to leave the club after only one season as his family wanted to return to the North West.[citation needed]

Cole signed for Manchester City on a free transfer at the beginning of the 2005–06 season,[12] and enjoyed a good start to his career at Eastlands. Stuart Pearce's side spent most of the season in the top half of the table, but Cole's season was ended by injury in March.

Despite signing a new contract with Manchester City only months earlier[13] and leaving Fulham in 2005 to return to the north, Cole signed for south coast club Portsmouth on transfer deadline day (31 August 2006) for an undisclosed fee, reported as £500,000 with the potential to rise to £1 million depending on appearances.[14] He scored his first league goal for his new club in the 2–0 win at home to West Ham United on 14 October.[15] However, Cole struggled to break into Harry Redknapp's side and in March 2007, he signed on loan for Birmingham City of the Championship until the end of the season.[16] Cole returned to Portsmouth after five appearances and one goal (against Wolverhampton Wanderers)[17] for Birmingham. He was released on 3 August 2007.[18]

After being released by Portsmouth at the end of the 2006–07 season, Cole signed a one-year contract with Sunderland on a free transfer, reuniting him once more with former Manchester United and Blackburn Rovers strike partner Dwight Yorke, and under the management of former United teammate Roy Keane. After seven matches for the club, Cole spent three months on loan at Burnley where he scored six goals for the Championship club, including a hat-trick against Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road.[19] Reflecting on his time at Turf Moor, Cole stated, "I went to Burnley and spoke to Owen Coyle and got a great vibe. He brought the best out of me and made me feel a lot younger than my age."[20] Cole was released by Sunderland at the end of the 2007–08 season.

On 4 July 2008, Cole signed a 12-month deal with Nottingham Forest, his 12th club and hometown club from childhood. However, on 31 October 2008, Forest confirmed Cole's contract had been cancelled by mutual consent after 11 appearances and 0 goals.

On 11 November 2008, Cole announced his retirement from football, ending a 19-year career.[21]

International career

Despite first being capped for England in 1995, Cole earned only 15 caps by the time he announced his retirement from international football after failing to be selected for the 2002 World Cup squad. He scored one goal for England, in a World Cup qualifying match against Albania in March 2001.[22] He also scored in his single appearance for the England B team.

Glenn Hoddle, in defence of his decision not to select Cole for the World Cup in 1998, accused Cole of needing six or seven chances to score one goal.[23]

Injury just prior to UEFA Euro 2000 led to Cole missing out on another major competition for his country.[24]

Cole earned his first four caps under four different managers. He made his debut against Uruguay under Terry Venables in 1995; appeared next against Italy under Glenn Hoddle at the Tournoi de France in 1997; made his third appearance against France under caretaker Howard Wilkinson in 1999; and finally earned his fourth cap against Poland under new manager Kevin Keegan in his first starting appearance a few weeks later.

Coaching career

In August 2009, Cole was hired by his former Manchester United and England teammate, Milton Keynes Dons manager Paul Ince, to coach the club's forwards on an initially temporary basis.[25] However, one week later, Cole agreed to spend at least two days a week working on finishing with the forwards at Huddersfield Town, under his former Newcastle United and Fulham teammate Lee Clark.[26] In December 2010, Cole was back at Manchester United, working at the Carrington training ground while finishing his coaching badges.[27] In October 2019, Cole was named as forward and attack coach assisting manager, Sol Campbell at Southend United.

Rafe Spall

Rafe Spall

Rafe Joseph Spall (born 10 March 1983)[2] is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in the Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy of films, portraying Noel in Shaun of the Dead (2004), Andy Cartwright in Hot Fuzz (2007), and briefly appearing as a homebuyer in The World's End (2013).

Additionally, Spall has appeared in films including A Good Year (2006), One Day (2011), Anonymous (2011), Prometheus (2012), Life of Pi (2012), The Big Short (2015), The BFG (2016), The Ritual (2017), and Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018). He played the title role of Pete Griffiths in Pete versus Life from 2010–2011, and has portrayed characters on the TV series The Shadow Line and Black Mirror. He appears in the Men in Black spin-off film Men in Black: International (2019).

Early life

Spall was born at King's College Hospital in Camberwell, London, the second of three children of Shane (née Baker) and actor Timothy Spall. Named after the protagonist in The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a role his father played in the Royal Shakespeare Company and one he would later play himself, he always had ambitions to act. When he was 12, his father was diagnosed with leukaemia and spent the next 18 months in treatment. He was overweight as a teen, which he calls a "painful" experience.[3] Having achieved poor grades at his school, Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham College,[4] he left to become an actor and joined the National Youth Theatre at 15. He failed to get into his chosen drama schools, such as RADA, at 17, but worked anyway. After being perennially cast in "fat" roles, he lost 77 lbs at age 19, which brought more acting opportunities.[3]

Career

Spall has frequently collaborated with Edgar Wright, appearing in his films Shaun of the Dead, Hot Fuzz and The World's End alongside Simon Pegg and Nick Frost. Spall was also featured in Wright's segment in the 2007 Quentin Tarantino and Robert Rodriguez film Grindhouse.

In 2007, he performed for the first time with his father in the ITV adaptation of A Room with a View playing father and son.[5]

In 2011 he starred in One Day.

In 2012, Spall portrayed Canadian author Yann Martel in the Academy Award-winning drama film Life of Pi, directed by Ang Lee and starring Suraj Sharma and Irrfan Khan. The film was a critical and financial success, winning four Academy Awards and making over $600 million at the box office. In 2013, he played the newlywed husband in I Give It a Year, a comedy about the trials and tribulations of a couple during their first year of marriage.[6]

In 2014, Spall appeared in the coming-of-age drama X+Y, alongside Asa Butterfield and Sally Hawkins, and the seasonal family comedy Get Santa. In 2015, he played John Hancock in the History Channel three-part series, Sons of Liberty, alongside Jim Broadbent, and appeared in the Academy Award-winning biographical comedy-drama The Big Short, alongside Christian Bale, Brad Pitt, Ryan Gosling and Steve Carell. Also that year, Spall played Harry Price in Harry Price: Ghost Hunter, ITV's adaptation of Neil Spring's debut novel, The Ghost Hunters. The film aired on ITV1 on 27 December.[7]

Spall portrayed Eli Mills in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018), the fifth instalment of Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park series, and directed by The Impossible helmer J. A. Bayona.[8]

Personal life

Spall says he has always struggled with his weight, going up to 114 kg (251 lb), but said that he was given so many character parts that he attempted to slim down, losing over 32 kg.[9] Like his father, he is a keen supporter of Crystal Palace. He is a patron of the Actors' Centre.[10]

In February 2008, Spall met actress Elize du Toit; they were married on 14 August 2010[11] and live in West Kensington, London.[12] They have three children: a daughter Lena, born 2011, a son Rex, born November 2012 and another son born in 2015

Bitcoin

Bitcoin

Bitcoin[a] (₿) is a cryptocurrency. It is a decentralized digital currency without a central bank or single administrator that can be sent from user to user on the peer-to-peer bitcoin network without the need for intermediaries.[8]

Transactions are verified by network nodes through cryptography and recorded in a public distributed ledger called a blockchain. Bitcoin was invented in 2008 by an unknown person or group of people using the name Satoshi Nakamoto[15] and started in 2009[16] when its source code was released as open-source software.[7]:ch. 1 Bitcoins are created as a reward for a process known as mining. They can be exchanged for other currencies, products, and services.[17] Research produced by University of Cambridge estimates that in 2017, there were 2.9 to 5.8 million unique users using a cryptocurrency wallet, most of them using bitcoin.[18]

Bitcoin has been criticized for its use in illegal transactions, its high electricity consumption, price volatility, and thefts from exchanges. Some economists, including several Nobel laureates, have characterized it as a speculative bubble. Bitcoin has also been used as an investment, although several regulatory agencies have issued investor alerts about bitcoin

Creation

The domain name "bitcoin.org" was registered on 18 August 2008.[21] On 31 October 2008, a link to a paper authored by Satoshi Nakamoto titled Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System[4] was posted to a cryptography mailing list.[22] Nakamoto implemented the bitcoin software as open-source code and released it in January 2009.[23][24][16] Nakamoto's identity remains unknown.[15]

On 3 January 2009, the bitcoin network was created when Nakamoto mined the first block of the chain, known as the genesis block.[25][26] Embedded in the coinbase of this block was the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks".[16] This note references a headline published by The Times and has been interpreted as both a timestamp and a comment on the instability caused by fractional-reserve banking.[27]:18

The receiver of the first bitcoin transaction was cypherpunk Hal Finney, who had created the first reusable proof-of-work system (RPoW) in 2004.[28] Finney downloaded the bitcoin software on its release date, and on 12 January 2009 received ten bitcoins from Nakamoto.[29][30] Other early cypherpunk supporters were creators of bitcoin predecessors: Wei Dai, creator of b-money, and Nick Szabo, creator of bit gold.[25] In 2010, the first known commercial transaction using bitcoin occurred when programmer Laszlo Hanyecz bought two Papa John's pizzas for ₿10,000.[31]

Blockchain analysts estimate that Nakamoto had mined about one million bitcoins[32] before disappearing in 2010, when he handed the network alert key and control of the code repository over to Gavin Andresen. Andresen later became lead developer at the Bitcoin Foundation.[33][34] Andresen then sought to decentralize control. This left opportunity for controversy to develop over the future development path of bitcoin, in contrast to the perceived authority of Nakamoto's contributions.[35][34]

2011–2012

After early "proof-of-concept" transactions, the first major users of bitcoin were black markets, such as Silk Road. During its 30 months of existence, beginning in February 2011, Silk Road exclusively accepted bitcoins as payment, transacting 9.9 million in bitcoins, worth about $214 million.[36]:222

In 2011, the price started at $0.30 per bitcoin, growing to $5.27 for the year. The price rose to $31.50 on 8 June. Within a month the price fell to $11.00. The next month it fell to $7.80, and in another month to $4.77.[37]

Litecoin, an early bitcoin spin-off or altcoin, appeared in October 2011.[38] Many altcoins have been created since then.[39]

In 2012, bitcoin prices started at $5.27 growing to $13.30 for the year.[37] By 9 January the price had risen to $7.38, but then crashed by 49% to $3.80 over the next 16 days. The price then rose to $16.41 on 17 August, but fell by 57% to $7.10 over the next three days.[40]

The Bitcoin Foundation was founded in September 2012 to promote bitcoin's development and uptake.[41]

2013–2016

In 2013, prices started at $13.30 rising to $770 by 1 January 2014.[37]

In March 2013 the blockchain temporarily split into two independent chains with different rules due to a bug in version 0.8 of the bitcoin software. The two blockchains operated simultaneously for six hours, each with its own version of the transaction history from the moment of the split. Normal operation was restored when the majority of the network downgraded to version 0.7 of the bitcoin software, selecting the backward compatible version of the blockchain. As a result, this blockchain became the longest chain and could be accepted by all participants, regardless of their bitcoin software version.[42] During the split, the Mt. Gox exchange briefly halted bitcoin deposits and the price dropped by 23% to $37[42][43] before recovering to previous level of approximately $48 in the following hours.[44]

The US Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) established regulatory guidelines for "decentralized virtual currencies" such as bitcoin, classifying American bitcoin miners who sell their generated bitcoins as Money Service Businesses (MSBs), that are subject to registration or other legal obligations.[45][46][47]

In April, exchanges BitInstant and Mt. Gox experienced processing delays due to insufficient capacity[48] resulting in the bitcoin price dropping from $266 to $76 before returning to $160 within six hours.[49] The bitcoin price rose to $259 on 10 April, but then crashed by 83% to $45 over the next three days.[40]

On 15 May 2013, US authorities seized accounts associated with Mt. Gox after discovering it had not registered as a money transmitter with FinCEN in the US.[50][51] On 23 June 2013, the US Drug Enforcement Administration listed ₿11.02 as a seized asset in a United States Department of Justice seizure notice pursuant to 21 U.S.C. § 881. This marked the first time a government agency had seized bitcoin.[52] The FBI seized about ₿30,000[53] in October 2013 from the dark web website Silk Road during the arrest of Ross William Ulbricht.[54][55][56] These bitcoins were sold at blind auction by the United States Marshals Service to venture capital investor Tim Draper.[53] Bitcoin's price rose to $755 on 19 November and crashed by 50% to $378 the same day. On 30 November 2013 the price reached $1,163 before starting a long-term crash, declining by 87% to $152 in January 2015.[40]

On 5 December 2013, the People's Bank of China prohibited Chinese financial institutions from using bitcoins.[57] After the announcement, the value of bitcoins dropped,[58] and Baidu no longer accepted bitcoins for certain services.[59] Buying real-world goods with any virtual currency had been illegal in China since at least 2009.[60]

In 2014, prices started at $770 and fell to $314 for the year.[37] On 30 July 2014, the Wikimedia Foundation started accepting donations of bitcoin.[61]

In 2015, prices started at $314 and rose to $434 for the year. In 2016, prices rose and climbed up to $998 by 1 January 2017.[37]

2017–2019

On 15 July 2017, the controversial Segregated Witness [SegWit] software upgrade was approved ("locked in"). Segwit was intended to support the Lightning Network as well as improve scalability.[62] SegWit was subsequently activated on the network on 24 August 2017. The bitcoin price rose almost 50% in the week following SegWit's approval.[62] On 21 July 2017, bitcoin was trading at $2,748, up 52% from 14 July 2017's $1,835.[62] Supporters of large blocks who were dissatisfied with the activation of SegWit forked the software on 1 August 2017 to create Bitcoin Cash.

Prices started at $998 in 2017 and rose to $13,412.44 on 1 January 2018,[37] after reaching its all-time high of $19,783.06 on 17 December 2017.[63]

China banned trading in bitcoin, with first steps taken in September 2017, and a complete ban that started on 1 February 2018. Bitcoin prices then fell from $9,052 to $6,914 on 5 February 2018.[40] The percentage of bitcoin trading in the Chinese renminbi fell from over 90% in September 2017 to less than 1% in June 2018.[64]

Throughout the rest of the first half of 2018, bitcoin's price fluctuated between $11,480 and $5,848. On 1 July 2018, bitcoin's price was $6,343.[65][66] The price on 1 January 2019 was $3,747, down 72% for 2018 and down 81% since the all-time high.[65][67]

Bitcoin prices were negatively affected by several hacks or thefts from cryptocurrency exchanges, including thefts from Coincheck in January 2018, Coinrail and Bithumb in June, and Bancor in July. For the first six months of 2018, $761 million worth of cryptocurrencies was reported stolen from exchanges.[68] Bitcoin's price was affected even though other cryptocurrencies were stolen at Coinrail and Bancor as investors worried about the security of cryptocurrency exchanges.[69][70][71] In September 2019 the Intercontinental Exchange (the owner of the NYSE) began trading of bitcoin futures on its exchange called Bakkt.[72] Bakkt also announced that it would launch options on bitcoin in December 2019.[73] In December 2019 YouTube removed bitcoin and cryptocurrency videos, but later restored the content and they said they "made the wrong call."[74]

In February 2019, Canadian cryptocurrency exchange Quadriga Fintech Solutions failed with approximately $200 million missing.[75] By June 2019 the price had recovered to $13,000.[76]

2020

According to CoinMetrics and Forbes, on 11 March 281,000 bitcoins were sold by owners who held them for only thirty days. This compared to 4,131 bitcoins that had laid dormant for a year or more indicating that the vast majority of the bitcoin volatility on that day was from recent buyers.[76] During the week of 11 March 2020 as a result of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic cryptocurrency exchange Kraken experienced an 83% increase in the amount of account signups over the week of bitcoin's price collapse, a result of buyers looking to capitalize on the low price.[76]

Design

Units and divisibility

The unit of account of the bitcoin system is a bitcoin. Ticker symbols used to represent bitcoin are BTC[b] and XBT.[c][81]:2 Its Unicode character is ₿.[1] Small amounts of bitcoin used as alternative units are millibitcoin (mBTC), and satoshi (sat). Named in homage to bitcoin's creator, a satoshi is the smallest amount within bitcoin representing 0.00000001 bitcoins, one hundred millionth of a bitcoin.[2] A millibitcoin equals 0.001 bitcoins; one thousandth of a bitcoin or 100,000 satoshis.[82]

Blockchain

The bitcoin blockchain is a public ledger that records bitcoin transactions.[85] It is implemented as a chain of blocks, each block containing a hash of the previous block up to the genesis block[d] of the chain. A network of communicating nodes running bitcoin software maintains the blockchain.[36]:215–219 Transactions of the form payer X sends Y bitcoins to payee Z are broadcast to this network using readily available software applications.

Network nodes can validate transactions, add them to their copy of the ledger, and then broadcast these ledger additions to other nodes. To achieve independent verification of the chain of ownership each network node stores its own copy of the blockchain.[86] About every 10 minutes, a new group of accepted transactions, called a block, is created, added to the blockchain, and quickly published to all nodes, without requiring central oversight. This allows bitcoin software to determine when a particular bitcoin was spent, which is needed to prevent double-spending. A conventional ledger records the transfers of actual bills or promissory notes that exist apart from it, but the blockchain is the only place that bitcoins can be said to exist in the form of unspent outputs of transactions.[7]:ch. 5

Transactions

Transactions are defined using a Forth-like scripting language.[7]:ch. 5 Transactions consist of one or more inputs and one or more outputs. When a user sends bitcoins, the user designates each address and the amount of bitcoin being sent to that address in an output. To prevent double spending, each input must refer to a previous unspent output in the blockchain.[87] The use of multiple inputs corresponds to the use of multiple coins in a cash transaction. Since transactions can have multiple outputs, users can send bitcoins to multiple recipients in one transaction. As in a cash transaction, the sum of inputs (coins used to pay) can exceed the intended sum of payments. In such a case, an additional output is used, returning the change back to the payer.[87] Any input satoshis not accounted for in the transaction outputs become the transaction fee.[87]

Transaction fees

Though transaction fees are optional, miners can choose which transactions to process and prioritize those that pay higher fees.[87] Miners may choose transactions based on the fee paid relative to their storage size, not the absolute amount of money paid as a fee. These fees are generally measured in satoshis per byte (sat/b). The size of transactions is dependent on the number of inputs used to create the transaction, and the number of outputs.[7]:ch. 8

Ownership

In the blockchain, bitcoins are registered to bitcoin addresses. Creating a bitcoin address requires nothing more than picking a random valid private key and computing the corresponding bitcoin address. This computation can be done in a split second. But the reverse, computing the private key of a given bitcoin address, is practically unfeasible.[7]:ch. 4 Users can tell others or make public a bitcoin address without compromising its corresponding private key. Moreover, the number of valid private keys is so vast that it is extremely unlikely someone will compute a key-pair that is already in use and has funds. The vast number of valid private keys makes it unfeasible that brute force could be used to compromise a private key. To be able to spend their bitcoins, the owner must know the corresponding private key and digitally sign the transaction. The network verifies the signature using the public key; the private key is never revealed.[7]:ch. 5

If the private key is lost, the bitcoin network will not recognize any other evidence of ownership;[36] the coins are then unusable, and effectively lost. For example, in 2013 one user claimed to have lost 7,500 bitcoins, worth $7.5 million at the time, when he accidentally discarded a hard drive containing his private key.[88] About 20% of all bitcoins are believed to be lost. They would have a market value of about $20 billion at July 2018 prices.[89]

To ensure the security of bitcoins, the private key must be kept secret.[7]:ch. 10 If the private key is revealed to a third party, e.g. through a data breach, the third party can use it to steal any associated bitcoins.[90] As of December 2017, around 980,000 bitcoins have been stolen from cryptocurrency exchanges.[91]

Regarding ownership distribution, as of 16 March 2018, 0.5% of bitcoin wallets own 87% of all bitcoins ever mined