9/11

The September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11)[a] were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda[2][3][4] against the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, and caused at least $10 billion in infrastructure and property damage.[5][6] Additional people died of 9/11-related cancer and respiratory diseases in the months and years following the attacks.

Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers (United Airlines and American Airlines)—all of which departed from airports in the northeastern United States bound for San Francisco and Los Angeles—were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists. Two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan. Within an hour and 42 minutes, both 110-story towers collapsed. Debris and the resulting fires caused a partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex, including the 47-story 7 World Trade Center tower, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, which led to a partial collapse of the building's west side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, was initially flown toward Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers thwarted the hijackers. 9/11 is the single deadliest terrorist attack in human history and the single deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers[7] in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed, respectively.

Suspicion quickly fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had failed to comply with U.S. demands to extradite Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda's leader, initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks.[1] Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. After evading capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located in Pakistan and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. Navy in May 2011.

The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure seriously harmed the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets, which resulted in the closing of Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. On November 18, 2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building opened on November 3, 2014.[8][9] Numerous memorials have been constructed, including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Although not confirmed, there is evidence of alleged Saudi Arabian involvement in the attacks.[10] Given as main evidence in these charges are the contents of the 28 redacted pages of the December 2002 Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 conducted by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. These 28 pages contain information regarding the material and financial assistance given to the hijackers and their affiliates leading up to the attacks by the Saudi Arabian government.[11]

As a consequence of the attacks, the United States of America has been in a state of national emergency ever since 2001.
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets.[13] Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical.[14] In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.[15]

In a second fatwā in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.[16] Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed. Muslim legal scholars "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.[16]

Osama bin Laden
Further information: Osama bin Laden, Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden, and Death of Osama bin Laden
Bin Laden orchestrated the attacks and initially denied involvement but later recanted his false statements.[1][17][18] Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16, 2001, stating, "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."[19] In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks.[20] On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said:

It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred

but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.[21] The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims.

Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004, bin Laden used a taped statement to publicly acknowledge al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the United States. He admitted his direct link to the attacks and said they were carried out because:

we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security, we undermine yours.[22]

Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.[23][24] Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they make preparations for the attacks.[25] The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9/11 attacks, but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya.[26][27] After a 10-year manhunt, bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, on May 2, 2011.[28][29]

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
Main article: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
Journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that in April 2002 Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[30][31][32] The 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".[33] Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack.[34][35]

Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA. He was then held at multiple CIA secret prisons and Guantanamo Bay where he was interrogated and tortured with methods including waterboarding.[36][37][38] During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.[32][39]

A letter presented by the lawyers of Khaled Sheikh Mohammed in the U.S. District Court, Manhattan on 26 July 2019, indicated that the prime accused mastermind was interested in testifying against Saudi Arabia’s role in the 9/11 attacks and helping the victims and families of the victims of 9/11. However, as per the letter, Mohammed's agreement upon the same in “the present time” isn't certain. James Kreindler, one of the lawyers for the plaintiff also raised question over the usefulness of Mohammed. [40]

Other al-Qaeda members
Further information: Trials related to the September 11 attacks
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Abu Turab al-Urduni, and Mohammed Atef.[41] To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.

On September 26, 2005, the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.[42] On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.[43]

Also in 2006, Moussaoui—who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker—was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole in the United States.[44][45] Mounir el-Motassadeq, an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, served 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks. He was released in October 2018, and deported to Morocco.[46]

The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.[47] Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.[48]

Motives
Main article: Motives for the September 11 attacks
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others, calling for the killing of Americans,[16] are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.[49] In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for their attacks include:

U.S. support of Israel[50][51]
support for the "attacks against Muslims" in Somalia
support of Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict
support for Israeli "aggression" against Muslims in Lebanon
support of Russian "atrocities against Muslims" in Chechnya
pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests
support of Indian "oppression against Muslims" in Kashmir
the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia[52]
the sanctions against Iraq[50]
After the attacks, bin Laden and al-Zawahiri released additional videotapes and audio recordings, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America",[53] and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.[54]

Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".Bergen (2001), p. 3 In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote, "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples."[55]

In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.[56] One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.[57]

In the 1998 fatwā, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade"[55] among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."[55] The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."[16][58]

In 2004, Bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War.[59][60] Some analysts, including Mearsheimer and Walt, also claimed that U.S. support of Israel was one motive for the attacks.[51][56] In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.[61][62]

Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda, including western support of Islamic and non-Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan and northern Africa, and the presence of western troops in some of these countries.[63][page needed] Some authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy was rendered especially visible by the globalization trend[64][65] and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution

Millennial

Millennials, also known as Generation Y (or simply Gen Y), are the demographic cohort following Generation X and preceding Generation Z. Researchers and popular media use the early 1980s as starting birth years and the mid-1990s to early 2000s as ending birth years, with 1981 to 1996 a widely accepted definition. Millennials are sometimes referred to as "echo boomers" due to a major surge in birth rates in the 1980s and 1990s, and because millennials are often the children of the baby boomers. The characteristics of millennials vary by region and by individual, and the group experiences a variety of social and economic conditions, but they are generally marked by their coming of age in the Information Age, and are comfortable in their usage of digital technologies and social media.
gust 1993, an Advertising Age editorial coined the phrase Generation Y to describe those who were aged 11 or younger as well as the teenagers of the upcoming ten years who were defined as different from Generation X.[4][5] According to journalist Bruce Horovitz, in 2012, Ad Age "threw in the towel by conceding that millennials is a better name than Gen Y",[1] and by 2014, a past director of data strategy at Ad Age said to NPR "the Generation Y label was a placeholder until we found out more about them".[6] Millennials are sometimes called Echo Boomers,[7] due to their being the offspring of the baby boomers and due to the significant increase in birth rates from the early 1980s to mid 1990s, mirroring that of their parents. In the United States, birth rates peaked in August 1990[8][9] and a 20th-century trend toward smaller families in developed countries continued.[10][11] In his book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson called this cohort the "New Boomers".[12]

Psychologist Jean Twenge described millennials as "Generation Me" in her 2006 book Generation Me: Why Today’s Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled – and More Miserable Than Ever Before, which was updated in 2014.[13][14] In 2013, Time magazine ran a cover story titled Millennials: The Me Me Me Generation.[15] Newsweek used the term Generation 9/11 to refer to young people who were between the ages of 10 and 20 during the terrorist acts of September 11, 2001. The first reference to "Generation 9/11" was made in the cover story of the 12 November 2001 issue of Newsweek.[16] Alternative names for this group proposed include Generation We,[17] Global Generation, Generation Next,[18] The Net Generation[19] and The Burnout Generation.[20]

Chinese millennials are commonly called the 1980s and 1990s generations. At a 2015 conference in Shanghai organized by University of Southern California's US-China Institute, millennials in China were examined and contrasted with American millennials.[21] Findings included millennials' marriage, childbearing, and child raising preferences, life and career ambitions, and attitudes towards volunteerism and activism.[22]

Peter Pan generation
American sociologist Kathleen Shaputis labeled millennials as the Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan generation because of the members' perceived tendency for delaying some rites of passage into adulthood for longer periods than most generations before them. These labels were also a reference to a trend toward members living with their parents for longer periods than previous generations.[23] Kimberly Palmer regards the high cost of housing and higher education, and the relative affluence of older generations, as among the factors driving the trend.[24] Questions regarding a clear definition of what it means to be an adult also impacts a debate about delayed transitions into adulthood and the emergence of a new life stage, Emerging Adulthood. A 2012 study by professors at Brigham Young University found that college students were more likely to define "adult" based on certain personal abilities and characteristics rather than more traditional "rite of passage" events.[25] Larry Nelson noted that "In prior generations, you get married and you start a career and you do that immediately. What young people today are seeing is that approach has led to divorces, to people unhappy with their careers … The majority want to get married […] they just want to do it right the first time, the same thing with their careers."[25]

A 2013 joint study by sociologists at the University of Virginia and Harvard University found that the decline and disappearance of stable full-time jobs with health insurance and pensions for people who lack a college degree has had profound effects on working-class Americans, who now are less likely to marry and have children within marriage than those with college degrees.[26] Data from a 2014 study of U.S. millennials revealed over 56% of this cohort considers themselves as part of the working class, with only approximately 35% considering themselves as part of the middle class; this class identity is the lowest polling of any generation.[27]

Research by the Urban Institute conducted in 2014, projected that if current trends continue, millennials will have a lower marriage rate compared to previous generations, predicting that by age 40, 31% of millennial women will remain single, approximately twice the share of their single Gen X counterparts. The data showed similar trends for males.[28][29] A 2016 study from Pew Research showed millennials delay some activities considered rites of passage of adulthood with data showing young adults aged 18–34 were more likely to live with parents than with a relationship partner, an unprecedented occurrence since data collection began in 1880. Data also showed a significant increase in the percentage of young adults living with parents compared to the previous demographic cohort, Generation X, with 23% of young adults aged 18–34 living with parents in 2000, rising to 32% in 2014. Additionally, in 2000, 43% of those aged 18–34 were married or living with a partner, with this figure dropping to 32% in 2014. High student debt is described as one reason for continuing to live with parents, but may not be the dominant factor for this shift as the data shows the trend is stronger for those without a college education. Richard Fry, a senior economist for Pew Research said of millennials, "they're the group much more likely to live with their parents," further stating that "they're concentrating more on school, careers and work and less focused on forming new families, spouses or partners and children".[30][31]

According to a cross-generational study comparing millennials to Generation X conducted at Wharton School of Business, more than half of millennial undergraduates surveyed do not plan to have children. The researchers compared surveys of the Wharton graduating class of 1992 and 2012. In 1992, 78% of women planned to eventually have children dropping to 42% in 2012. The results were similar for male students. The research revealed among both genders the proportion of undergraduates who reported they eventually planned to have children had dropped in half over the course of a generation.[32][33][34]

Date and age range definitions
Oxford Living Dictionaries describes a millennial as "a person reaching young adulthood in the early 21st century."[35]

The Pew Research Center defines millennials as born from 1981 to 1996, choosing these dates for "key political, economic and social factors", including the September 11th terrorist attacks, the Great Recession, and the Internet explosion.[36] Jonathan Rauch, senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, wrote for The Economist in 2018 that "generations are squishy concepts", but the 1981 to 1996 birth cohort is a "widely accepted" definition for millennials,[37] with many major media outlets having cited Pew's definition including Time magazine,[38] The Washington Post,[39] Reuters,[40] Business Insider,[41] The New York Times,[42] and The Wall Street Journal.[43] Pew Research Center has observed that "[b]ecause generations are analytical constructs, it takes time for popular and expert consensus to develop as to the precise boundaries that demarcate one generation from another"[44][45] and have indicated that they would remain open to date recalibration.[36] According to this definition, the oldest millennial is 38 years old and the youngest is, or is turning, 23 years old in 2019.

The American Psychological Association describes millennials as those born between the years 1981 and 1996,[46] as does the Federal Reserve Board,[47] and Ernst and Young.[48] The birth years of 1981 to 1996 have also been used to define millennials by PBS,[49] CBS,[50] ABC Australia,[51] The Washington Post,[52] The Washington Times,[53] and The Los Angeles Times.[54]

Gallup Inc.,[55][56][57] MSW Research,[58] the Resolution Foundation use 1980–1996,[59] PricewaterhouseCoopers has used 1981 to 1995,[60] and Nielsen Media Research has defined millennials as between 21 and 37 years old in 2018.[61] The United States Chamber of Commerce, a business-oriented lobbying group,[62] uses 1980–1999.[63] In 2014, U.S PIRG described millennials as those born between 1983 and 2000.[64][65][66] The United States Census Bureau used the birth years 1982 to 2000 in a 2015 news release to describe millennials,[67] but they have stated that "there is no official start and end date for when millennials were born"[68] and they do not define millennials.[69][70][71]

Australia's McCrindle Research uses 1980–1994 as Generation Y birth years.[72]

In his 2008 book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson used the term "New Boomers" to describe this cohort. He identified the birth years of 1983–2001, based on the upswing in births after 1983 and finishing with the "political and social challenges" that occurred after the September 11th terrorist acts.[12] Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe define millennials as born between 1982–2004.[1] However, Howe described the dividing line between millennials and the following Generation Z as "tentative", saying "you can’t be sure where history will someday draw a cohort dividing line until a generation fully comes of age".[73]

Individuals born in the Generation X and millennial cusp years of the late 1970s and early to mid 1980s have been identified as a "microgeneration" with characteristics of both generations.[74] Names given to these "cuspers" include Xennials,[75] Generation Catalano,[76] and the Oregon Trail Generation.[77]

Traits
Psychologist Jean Twenge, the author of the 2006 book Generation Me, considers millennials, along with younger members of Generation X, to be part of what she calls "Generation Me".[79] Twenge attributes millennials with the traits of confidence and tolerance, but also describes a sense of entitlement and narcissism, based on "Narcissistic Personality Inventory" surveys showing increased narcissism among millennials[quantify] compared to preceding generations when they were teens and in their twenties.[80][81] Psychologist Jeffrey Arnett of Clark University, Worcester has criticized Twenge's research on narcissism among millennials, stating "I think she is vastly misinterpreting or over-interpreting the data, and I think it’s destructive".[82] He doubts that the Narcissistic Personality Inventory really measures narcissism at all. Arnett says that not only are millennials less narcissistic, they’re “an exceptionally generous generation that holds great promise for improving the world”.[83] A study published in 2017 in the journal Psychological Science found a small decline in narcissism among young people since the 1990s.[84][85]

The University of Michigan's "Monitoring the Future" study of high school seniors (conducted continually since 1975) and the American Freshman survey, conducted by UCLA's Higher Education Research Institute of new college students since 1966, showed an increase in the proportion of students who consider wealth a very important attribute, from 45% for Baby Boomers (surveyed between 1967 and 1985) to 70% for Gen Xers, and 75% for millennials. The percentage who said it was important to keep abreast of political affairs fell, from 50% for Baby Boomers to 39% for Gen Xers, and 35% for millennials. The notion of "developing a meaningful philosophy of life" decreased the most across generations, from 73% for Boomers to 45% for millennials. The willingness to be involved in an environmental cleanup program dropped from 33% for Baby Boomers to 21% for millennials.[86] Millennials show a willingness to vote more than previous generations. With voter rates being just below 50% for the last four presidential cycles, they have already surpassed Gen Xers of the same age who were at just 36%.[87]

A 2013 Pew Research Poll found that 84% of millennials, born since 1980, who were at that time between the ages of 18 and 32, favored legalizing the use of marijuana.[88] In 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity that said a majority did not like the "Millennial" label
In March 2014, the Pew Research Center issued a report about how "millennials in adulthood" are "detached from institutions and networked with friends."[91][92] The report said millennials are somewhat more upbeat than older adults about America's future, with 49% of millennials saying the country's best years are ahead, though they're the first in the modern era to have higher levels of student loan debt and unemployment.

Fred Bonner, a Samuel DeWitt Proctor Chair in Education at Rutgers University and author of Diverse Millennial Students in College: Implications for Faculty and Student Affairs, believes that much of the commentary on the Millennial Generation may be partially correct, but overly general and that many of the traits they describe apply primarily to "white, affluent teenagers who accomplish great things as they grow up in the suburbs, who confront anxiety when applying to super-selective colleges, and who multitask with ease as their helicopter parents hover reassuringly above them." During class discussions, Bonner listened to black and Hispanic students describe how some or all of the so-called core traits did not apply to them. They often said that the "special" trait, in particular, is unrecognizable. Other socio-economic groups often do not display the same attributes commonly attributed to millennials. "It's not that many diverse parents don't want to treat their kids as special," he says, "but they often don't have the social and cultural capital, the time and resources, to do that."[93]

In his book Fast Future, author David Burstein describes millennials' approach to social change as "pragmatic idealism" with a deep desire to make the world a better place, combined with an understanding that doing so requires building new institutions while working inside and outside existing institutions.[94]

Elza Venter, an educational psychologist and lecturer at Unisa, South Africa, in the Department of Psychology of Education, believes members of Generation Y are digital natives because they have grown up experiencing digital technology and have known it all their lives. Prensky[95] coined the concept ‘digital natives’ because this generation are ‘native speakers of the digital language of computers, video games and the internet’. This generation spans 20 years and its older members use a combination of face-to-face communication and computer mediated communication, while its younger members use mainly electronic and digital technologies for interpersonal communication.[96]

Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe argue that each generation has common characteristics that give it a specific character with four basic generational archetypes, repeating in a cycle. According to their hypothesis, they predicted millennials would become more like the "civic-minded" G.I. Generation with a strong sense of community both local and global.[2] Strauss and Howe ascribe seven basic traits to the millennial cohort: special, sheltered, confident, team-oriented, conventional, pressured, and achieving. Arthur E. Levine, author of When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student describes these generational images as "stereotypes".[93]

Strauss and Howe's research has been influential, but it also has critics.[93] Psychologist Jean Twenge says Strauss and Howe's assertions are overly-deterministic, non-falsifiable, and unsupported by rigorous evidence.[79]

Cultural identity
Strauss & Howe's book titled millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation describes the millennial generation as "civic-minded", rejecting the attitudes of the Baby Boomers and Generation X.[97] Since the 2000 U.S. Census, which allowed people to select more than one racial group, millennials in abundance have asserted the ideal that all their heritages should be respected, counted, and acknowledged.[98][99] Millennials are the children of Baby Boomers or Generation X, while some older members may have parents from the Silent Generation. A 2013 poll in the United Kingdom found that Generation Y was more "open-minded than their parents on controversial topics".[100][101] Of those surveyed, nearly 75% supported same-sex marriage.

In 2015, the Pew Research Center conducted research regarding generational identity.[89] It was discovered that millennials are less likely to strongly identify with the generational term when compared to Generation X or the Baby Boomers, with only 40% of those born between 1981 and 1997 identifying as part of the Millennial Generation. Among older millennials, those born 1981–1988, Pew Research found 43% personally identified as members of the older demographic cohort, Generation X, while only 35% identified as millennials. Among younger millennials (born 1989–1997), generational identity was not much stronger, with only 45% personally identifying as millennials. It was also found that millennials chose most often to define themselves with more negative terms such as self-absorbed, wasteful or greedy. In this 2015 report, Pew defined millennials with birth years ranging from 1981 onwards.[89]

Millennials came of age in a time where the entertainment industry began to be affected by the Internet.[102][103][104] In addition to millennials being the most ethnically and racially diverse compared to the generations older than they are, they are also on pace to be the most formally educated. As of 2008, 39.6% of millennials between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, which was an American record. Along with being educated, millennials also tend be upbeat, with about 9 out of 10 millennials feeling as though they have enough money or that they will reach their long-term financial goals, even during the tough economic times, and they are more optimistic about the future of the U.S. Additionally, millennials are also more open to change than older generations. According to the Pew Research Center that did a survey in 2008, millennials are the most likely of any generation to self-identify as liberals and are also more supportive of progressive domestic social agenda than older generations. Finally, millennials are less overtly religious than the older generations. About one in four millennials are unaffiliated with any religion, a considerably higher ratio than that of older generations when they were the ages of millennials.

Portugal football

The Portugal national football team (Portuguese: Seleção Portuguesa de Futebol) has represented Portugal in international men's football competition since 1921. It is controlled by the Portuguese Football Federation, the governing body for football in Portugal.

Portugal's first participation in a major tournament finals was at the 1966 World Cup, saw a team featuring famed striker Eusébio finish in third place. The next two times Portugal qualified for the World Cup finals were in 1986 and 2002, going out in the first round both times. Portugal also made it to the semi-finals of the UEFA Euro 1984 final tournament, losing 3–2 after extra time to the hosts and eventual winners France. The team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2000, the 2006 World Cup and Euro 2012, as well as the final of Euro 2004, the latter on home soil. At Euro 2016, Portugal won its first ever major trophy, defeating hosts France 1–0 after extra time, with the winning goal scored by Eder. With the win, Portugal qualified and made its first appearance in the FIFA Confederations Cup held in Russia, where they finished third. Portugal hosted the brand new 2019 UEFA Nations League as well as winning the trophy, making it the second major tournament earned by the Portuguese in three finals.

The team's home stadium is the Estádio Nacional, in Oeiras, although most of their home games are frequently played in other stadiums across the country. The current head coach is Fernando Santos and the captain is Cristiano Ronaldo, who also holds the team record for most caps and for most goals.
History
Main article: History of the Portugal national football team
Early World Cup attempts
Portugal was not invited to the 1930 World Cup, which only featured a final stage and no qualification round. The team took part in the 1934 FIFA World Cup qualification, but failed to eliminate their Spanish opponents, aggregating two defeats in the two-legged round, with a 9–0 loss in Madrid and 2–1 loss in Lisbon for an aggregate score of 11–1.

In the 1938 FIFA World Cup qualification, the Seleção played one game against Switzerland in a neutral ground, held in Milan, losing 2–1 against the Swiss, ending qualification prospects. Because of the international conflict due to the World War II, there was no World Cup held until the 1950 competition and subsequently, the national team made very few games against other teams. A 10–0 home friendly defeat against England, two years after the war, still stands as their biggest ever defeat.

1950s and early 1960s
On the restart of games, the team was to play a two-legged round against Spain, just like in the 1934 qualification. After a 5–1 defeat in Madrid, they managed to draw in the second game 2–2 and so the qualification ended with a 7–3 aggregate score. While they did not qualify on the pitch, they would later be invited to replace Turkey, which had withdrawn from participating; however, Portugal too refused to participate.

For the qualification of the 1954 World Cup, the team would play Austria. The Austrians won the first game with a 9–1 result. The best the national team could do was hold the team to a goalless draw in Lisbon, and the round ended with a 9–1 defeat.

In the 1958 qualification, Portugal won a qualification match for the first time, 3–0 at home with Italy. Nevertheless, they finished last in the group stage that also featured Northern Ireland; only the first-placed team, Northern Ireland, would qualify.

The year 1960 was the year that UEFA created the European Football Championship. The first edition was a knock-out tournament, the last four teams participating in final stage that only featured one leg while the older stages had two legs. For the first round, the Seleção das Quinas won 2–0 against East Germany and 3–2 in Porto for the second leg, finishing with a 5–2 two-legged win. The quarter-final opponent was Yugoslavia. Despite winning the first game 2–1, they lost the second leg 5–1 in Belgrade, and lost 6–3 on aggregate.

England and Luxembourg were the 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification adversaries of the national team. Portugal ended second in the group, behind England. Like in the previous World Cup qualification, only the first in the group would qualify.

In the 1964 European Championship. Portugal played against Bulgaria in the first round. The Portuguese lost in Sofia and won in Lisbon. With the round tied 4–4, a replay was needed in a neutral ground. In Rome, Portugal lost 1–0.

1966 World Cup and 1970s
In the 1966 World Cup qualification, Portugal was drawn into the same group as Czechoslovakia, Romania and Turkey. They topped the group with only one draw and one defeat during all the six games and finally qualified for a FIFA World Cup, that year the final stage would be held in England. Notable results were both 1–0 away wins against Czechoslovakia and Turkey and a 5–1 home win against the Turks.

The team started out with three wins in the group stage where they were in Group C when they beat Hungary 3–1, Bulgaria 3–0, and two-time defending champions Brazil 3–1. Secondly, they beat surprise quarter-finalist North Korea 5–3, with Eusébio getting four markers to overturn a 3–0 deficit. Later, they reached the semi-finals where they were beaten by hosts England 2–1; in this game, Portugal would have played in Liverpool, but as England were the hosts, FIFA decided that the game should have been in London, which led the Portuguese team travel unexpectedly from Liverpool to London. Portugal then defeated the Soviet Union 2–1 in the third place match for their best World Cup finish to date. Eusébio was the top scorer of the World Cup with nine goals.

In the Euro 1972 qualifiers, Portugal had to win its group that comprised the teams of Belgium, Denmark and Scotland. Portugal finished second to Belgium.

For the 1974 World Cup qualification stages, Portugal were unable to defeat Bulgaria (2–2) in the decisive match, thus not qualifying. Portugal faced tough competition from the strong Poland team for the place in the 1978 World Cup in Argentina. They finished second place, behind Poland.

Late 1970s until early 1990s
The national team was put alongside Austria, Belgium, Norway and Scotland to fight for the first spot in the group, which would allow them to go to the final stage of UEFA Euro 1980. Portugal took third place.
 finished in fourth place.

During the qualifying campaign for Euro 1984, Portugal was grouped with Finland, Poland and the Soviet Union. Portugal won the group with a win over the Soviet Union. Portugal ended in Group B, alongside Spain, West Germany and Romania. In the first two matches, they tied 0–0 and 1–1 against West Germany and Spain, respectively. A 1–0 win over Romania gave them second place in the group, to go through to the knockout stage, where they were matched against the hosts, France. The game was tied after 90 minutes and went into extra time; Portugal made the score 2–1, but France scored in the 114th and 119th minutes to eliminate Portugal 3–2 and go through to the final.

For the 1986 tournament, the Seleção played against Czechoslovakia, Malta, Sweden and West Germany for the two spots that would guarantee them a ticket to Mexico. Needing a win in the last game against West Germany in Stuttgart, Portugal won the game to become the first team to beat West Germany at their home ground in an official match. The team exited early in the group stages after a win and two losses. They started with a 1–0 win to England, but later were beaten by Poland and Morocco 1–0 and 3–1 respectively. Their staying in Mexico was marked by the Saltillo Affair, where players refused to train in order to win more prizes from the Football Federation.

For the UEFA Euro 1988 the Portuguese team attempted to top their qualifying group in a group with Italy, Malta, Sweden and Switzerland; however, they finished in third.

The 1990 World Cup qualification was in a group along with Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Luxembourg and Switzerland, Portugal fought to get one of the first two spots of the group. Playing at home against Czechoslovakia, the game ended in a 0–0 allowing the East Europeans to get the second place.

During the draws for the Euro 1992 qualifying, the Netherlands, Greece, Finland and Malta were the other teams. The Portuguese ended second behind the Dutch.

For the 1994 World Cup qualification, Portugal played in the same group as Estonia, Italy, Malta, Scotland and Switzerland for the two highest places. They ended in third behind Italy and Switzerland.

1995 to 2006: The golden generation
At the UEFA Euro 1996, Portugal finished first in Group D, and in the quarter-finals, they lost 1–0 to the Czech Republic. This team was known as the Golden generation, a group of youngsters who had won the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 1989 and 1991 and were now leading the national senior squad; they also reached the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2000 but were eliminated at the group stages of the 2002 FIFA World Cup despite high reputations

وفاء عامر

وفاء عامر (25 مايو 1968 -)، ممثلة مصرية.

عن حياتها
هي الأخت الكبرى للممثلة أيتن عامر، تخرجت من كلية الآداب جامعة بيروت العربية، كما التحقت في «المعهد العالي للفنون المسرحية» واشتركت أثناء الجامعة بالتمثيل بالمسرح الجامعي بدأت علاقتها بالفن من خلال دورها في مسلسل الزوج آخر من يعلم ثم توالت أعمالها.

أعمالها
من الأفلام
يا تهدي يا تعدي: 2017
الليلة الكبيرة: 2015
رأس الدبوس: 2012
نقطة النور: 2011
كف القمر: 2011-قمر
حين ميسرة: 2007-نحمده
علمنى الحب: 2005-أوسة
رحلة مشبوهة: 2001-زينات
تحت الربع بجنيه وربع: 2000-بلابل
لامؤاخذة يا دعبس: 2000-نواعم
أمواج الغضب: 1999
ولا في النية أبقى: 1999-ليلى
الواد محروس بتاع الوزير: 1999-هيام
نور ونار: 1999
بيتزا بيتزا: 1998-بنت الليل المقتوله
أرض أرض: 1998
إمبراطورية الشر: 1998-شروق
حنحب ونقب: 1997-الراقصة عزيزة
امرأة وخمسة رجال: 1997-أمينه الجارة
رجل مهم جدا: 1996-صفية
التحويلة: 1996-زوجة حلمي عبد السيد
صمت الخرفان: 1995-سوزي
تار بايت: 1995-فتنة
من أطلق هذه الرصاصة: 1995
الجراج: 1995
كشف المستور: 1994-سامية
انغام الغريب: 1994-نرجس
تعالب أرانب: 1994-سالي
يا تحب يا تقب: 1994-عزيزة الشغالة
مصيدة الذئاب: 1994-روحية
وزير في الجبس: 1993
ديسكو ديسكو: 1993-عنايات
نوع آخر من الجنون: 1992-صفاء
لعبة الإنتقام: 1992-نيفين - ضيفة شرف
الطيب و الشرس و الوحش: 1990-من فتيات العصابة
الأبطال الثلاثة: 1990
جواز عرفي: 1990
أحوال شخصية: 1992
الشجعان: 1992-ضيفة شرف
بصمات الوهم: 1987
عذرا انت حبيبي:سهير
من المسلسلات
هجرة الصعايدة: 2018
الطوفان: 2017
شطرنج (ج1، 2، 3): 2015، 2015، 2016-نورهان عامر الديب
جبل الحلال: 2014-غنيمة
ابن حلال: 2014-سهام
عربية: 2013
كاريوكا: 2012-تحية كاريوكا
دموع في نهر الحب: 2009
الأعصار قادم: 2009
ابن الأرندلي: 2009-أنهار
الدالي ( ج2، 3): 2008، 2011
ناصر: 2008-فهيمة محمد بدر والدة جمال
شط إسكندرية: 2008-وفاء الحسيني
الملك فاروق: 2007-الملكة نازلي
عفريت القرش: 2006
رجل وإمراتان: 2006
أنا وهؤلاء: 2005-الناظرة
السيرة العاشورية: (الحرافيش ج2): 2005
الظاهر بيبرس: 2005-شجرة الدر
الإمام محمد عبده: 2005
نسر الصعيد: 2018
ملح الأرض: 2004
قلب النهار: 2004
ملاعيب شيحة: 2004-شجرة الدر
حكاوي طرح البحر: 2004
نجوم الظهر: 2003-رحمة
كلمات: 2003
فارس بلا جواد: 2002-كاميليا
البشكار: 2002
أميرة في عابدين: 2002-عزيزة - ضيفة شرف
انظر حولك وابتسم: 2002
ضبط وإحضار: 2001
الكومي: 2001
دموع الرجال: 2000
خلف الأبواب المغلقة: 1999
يا قلبي لا تبكي: 1999
الشهاب: 1999
جسر الخطر: 1999
حب تحت الحراسة: 1998
بنات سعاد هانم: 1998
كعب داير: 1998
هاربة من الجحيم: 1998
التوأم: 1997
أصل و خمس صور: 1997
سنوات الغربة: 1997
طريق السراب: 1997
بريء فى ورطة: 1997
ضد التيار: 1997
أبناء دهشان: 1997
حكايات مستر أيوب ومسز عنايات: 1996
زواج بدون ازعاج: 1996
الحفار: 1996-ليليان
أيام الغربة: 1996
حكاية بلا بداية ولا نهاية: 1996
سر اللعبة: 1996
شقة الحرية: 1995-ضيفة الحلقات
من الذي لا ينساكي: 1995
شارع المواردي (ج2): 1995
سر الغائب: 1994
قلب الأسد: 1993-درية
ذئاب الجبل: 1993-رئيسة الغازية
الحضارة العربية الإسلامية: 1993
مغامرات زكية هانم: 1992
بيوت في المدينه: 1992
رأفت الهجان ( ج2): 1990
ليالي الحلمية ( ج3): 1990-نيرمين
ألف ليلة وليلة: (حمال الأسية): 1990
طيور الزمن الجريح: 1989
بنات زينب: 1989
السرايا: 1987
الظلال:مسلسل
هي والعاصفة:مسلسل
الحب والطوفان:مسلسل
جراح العمر:مسلسل
الشمس تشرق دائما:مسلسل
لن أخضع لرجل:مسلسل
البريمو:مسلسل
جنة حتحوت:مسلسل
أقوى من الطوفان:مسلسل
مسرحيات
جواز على ورقة طلاق: 2003
حلو وكداب: 2001
حلو الكلام: 2000
العصمة في إيد حماتي: 2000-(سميحة)
الواد ويكا بتاع أمريكا: 1998
شقاوه: 1998
نشنت يا ناصح: 1995
المنولوجست: 1993
نقول إيه: 1991-(الأميرة)
رجل عايش لوحده
حلو وكذاب
سهرة تليفزيونية
مواقع ممنوعة: 2006 -
اثنان على الطريق الصعب: 2003 -
روايح: 2001 -
الكلمة الحلوة: 1991 -
فتحة وشبكة وكتب كتاب:-(سهام)
زوجة الصياد:
عاشق المال:
كيف طارت مني أكسفورد:
صاحب الملك:
ان فاتك الميري:
قيد المواليد:
عودة السيد:
خطوات بلا طريق:
وتبقى الحقيقة:
ليلة العمر:
أخرى
لقاء مستحيل: 2010 - برنامج-(جميلة بوحيرد)
شرويت ع الإنترنت: 2003 - مسلسل اذاعي-(تمثيل)
الحلو مايكملش: 1997 - فوازير
المضحكون: 1995 - فوازير
أم العريف: 1992 - فوازير

منتخب تونس لكرة القدم

منتخب تونس لكرة القدم (بالفرنسية: Équipe de Tunisie de football)، هو الفريق الوطني الذي يمثل تونس في رياضة كرة القدم منذ مباراتها الأولى في عام 1957. وهو منتخب تابع لمنظمة الاتحاد الدولي لكرة القدم دوليا والاتحاد الأفريقي لكرة القدم قاريا. تشرف عليه الجامعة التونسية لكرة القدم التي تأسس عام 1957 بعد الاستقلال التونسي في عام 1956. وتشتهر تونس بالعامية باسم نسور قرطاج. ألوان الفريق حمراء وبيضاء ، والنسر الأصلع هو رمزه. فترات التمثيل التونسي المنتظم على أعلى مستوى دولي، من 1962 إلى 1978، من 1994 إلى 2008 ومرة أخرى من 2014 حتى الآن. تُلعب معظم مبارياته منذ عام 2001 على الملعب الأولمبي برادس الذي يقع بمدينة رادس بالعاصمة التونسية.

شارك المنتخب الوطني التونسي في ثلاث مسابقات كبرى لكرة القدم كل أربع سنوات. ظهرت في المراحل النهائية لخمس نسخ من بطولة كأس العالم وثمانية عشر في كأس الأمم الأفريقية، وشاركت في أربع نسخ لبطولة الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية. ومع ذلك، فقد صنعوا التاريخ في تلك البطولة عام 1978 في الأرجنتين عندما أصبحوا أول فريق أفريقي وعربي يفوز في إحدى مباريات في كأس العالم بفوزه على المكسيك 3-1. وتعادلوا مع ألمانيا المدافعة عن اللقب بالتعادل السلبي قبل الإقصاء. لقد تأهلوا منذ ذلك الحين لثلاث بطولات متتالية، في الأعوام 1998، 2002 و2006 قبل العودة في النسخة الأخيرة التي عقدت في روسيا في صيف 2018.

لكن على الرغم من هذا السجل الثري، لم تكن تونس قادرة أبداً على الترشح للدور الثاني من بطولة كأس العالم أو الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية. تونس لها منافسات كرة القدم منذ أمد طويل مع فرق اتحاد شمال إفريقيا لكرة القدم مثل مصر، المغرب، الجزائر وليبيا. في الواقع، التقى الفريق التونسي معهم كثيرا، سواء من خلال المباريات الودية أو تصفيات كأس العالم وكأس الأمم الأفريقية وبطولة أمم أفريقيا للمحليين. تعد تونس واحدة من أنجح الفرق الوطنية الأفريقية في المسابقات، حيث فازت بلقب كأس الأمم الأفريقية على أرضها عام 2004. كما احتلت المركز الثاني في عام 1965 كمضيف و1996 في جنوب إفريقيا. المنتخب التونسي له إعتراف كلي من كل المنظمات الرياضية، إنظمت تونس سنة 1960 إلى الاتحاد الدولي والاتحاد الأفريقي لكرة القدم وانظمت إلى الاتحاد العربي سنة 1978 واتحاد شمال أفريقيا سنة 2005.
قبل الاستقلال، مجموعة مختارة من عام 1928 أفضل اللاعبين التونسيين يلعبون في البطولة التونسية ويلعب مباريات ودية ضد الفرق الإقليمية والدولية. وهكذا، في 11 مارس 1928، لعبت تونس ضد منتخب فرنسا. تنتهي المباراة بفوز فرنسي (8–2).

في 23 مارس 1930، سحقت تونس نفس الفريق (0–5)، ومرة أخرى، 26 مارس 1933 (1–6). وقد حقق أول انتصار له خارج الديار في عام 1939 ضد مجموعة من لاعبي كرة القدم الهواة في باريس، بنتيجة (12–2). أكثر اللاعبين مشاركة في هذه الفترة هم:

غوستاف دوكوسو (الأولمبي الباجي): 22 مباراة دولية
غايتانو كيارينزا (النادي الرياضي لحمام الأنف): 21 مباراة دولية
ازوباردي[من؟] (الأولمبي الباجي): 19 مباراة دولية
العربي بن حسين «العربي باردو» (الترجي الرياضي التونسي): 16 مباراة دولية
رشيد سهيلي (النجم الرياضي الساحلي): 16 مباراة دولية
ميل[من؟] (راسينغ كلوب): 15 مباراة دولية
العروسي تسوري (الترجي الرياضي التونسي): 15 مباراة دولية
بن موسى[من؟] (الاتحاد الرياضي التونسي): 15 مباراة دولية
علية دويك (النجم الرياضي الساحلي): 14 مباراة دولية
درعا[من؟] (نادي سبورتينغ تونس): 11 مباراة دولية.
ما بعد الإستقلال (1957_1962)
بمجرد إعلان الاستقلال عام 1956، اتخذ قادة كرة القدم التونسيون الخطوات اللازمة لإنشاء هيئة وطنية حصرية لتحل محل رابطة تونس لكرة القدم (إحدى فروع الاتحاد الفرنسي لكرة القدم). أدت هذه الخطوات إلى إنشاء الجامعة التونسية لكرة القدم برئاسة الشاذلي زويتن، والذي تمت الموافقة عليه في 29 مارس 1957. تم الاعتراف بها باعتبارها مؤسسة عامة، ومنذ ذلك الحين استثمر الاتحاد في مهمته المزدوجة المتمثلة في الترويج لكرة القدم وإدارة المسابقة الوطنية وكذلك الفرق المختلفة التي تمثل تونس في المسابقات الدولية. على الرغم من ذلك، تم تشكيل المنتخب التونسي قبل الاستقلال. تم تعيين المدرب التونسي رشيد تركي كأول مدرب لتونس. تم إجراء مباراة ودية قبل الاستقلال بيومين، وكان ذلك أمام فريق جنوب غرب فرنسا، نجحت تونس في الفوز بالمباراة بفضل هدف خميس الغرياني
كانت تشكيلة الفريق التونسي كان على النحو التالي: زين العابدين شنوفي، صادق ضو (ثم محي الدين زغير)، عزيز جاب الله، إدريس مسعود، حسن تاسكو، عبدو الباجي، علي حناشي، أميدي سكورشوني، عيدي براشيك، نور الدين ديوا، خميس الغرياني. كما لعب الفريق التونسي مباراة مع الفريق النمساوي أدميرا فاكر مودلينغ في 30 ديسمبر من نفس العام وتمكن من الفوز (4–1) بفضل هدفين من كل من دي ه و براسيك والفريق التونسي كما يلي: محمد بنور ، يوسف السهيلي، عزيز جاب الله، مختار بلناصف، محرز الجلاصي، عبدو الباجي، علي الحناشي، عبد الرحمن بن عزالدين، هادي بريك، نور الدين ديوا (ثم خميس الغرياني)، وحمادي هنية.

حصلت تونس على استقلالها عن فرنسا في 20 مارس 1956. تم تأسيس الجامعة التونسية لكرة القدم في 29 مارس 1957 وأصبح تابعًا للاتحاد الدولي لكرة القدم والاتحاد الأفريقي لكرة القدم في عام 1960. وكانت تونس المستقلة قد لعبت مباراتها الأولى ضد الجزائر في 1 يونيو 1957 أثناء الحرب الجزائرية، خسرت تونس (2–1). لعبت أول مباراة رسمية لها في دورة الألعاب العربية 1957 حيث فازت على ليبيا (4–3) بعد تسجيلها أول هدف تونسي في مسابقة رسمية من قبل إبراهيم بن ميلاد. كما تمكنوا من اجتياز العراق ولبنان قبل أن يخسروا في المباراة النهائية ضد سوريا (3–1). في عام 1960، كان اللاعب اليوغوسلافي ميلان كريستيتش أول أجنبي يدرب المنتخب الوطني لذلك تأهلت تونس إلى الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1960 التي كانت أول حدث دولي لها بعد هزيمة مالطا، المغرب والسودان، في 24 يوليو 1960، حقق الفريق أكبر هزيمة له على الإطلاق، حيث خسر (10–1) أمام المجر. ومع ذلك ، بعد أقل من شهر ، في 18 أغسطس 1960، سجلت تونس أكبر فوز لها على الإطلاق: بفوزها على تايوان (8–1). أما بالنسبة للألعاب الأولمبية، فقد كانت النتائج سيئة للغاية في المباراة الأولى وعلى الرغم من افتتاح التسجيل من قبل إبراهيم كريت في الدقيقة الثالثة، إلا أن الفريق البولندي عاد في المباراة وفاز (6–1). كما خسر أمام الأرجنتين (2–1) قبل أن يهزم مرة أخرى، وهذه المرة ضد الدنمارك (3–1).

الجيل الذهبي (1962_1978)

حنان مطاوع

حنان مطاوع (23 فبراير 1979 -)، ممثلة مصرية
نة سهير المرشدي، تخرجت من المعهد العالي للفنون المسرحية  بدأت العمل الفني عام 2001 من خلال دور مطربة في مسلسل حديث الصباح والمساء وعملت في المسرح والتلفزيون والسينما وحتى الإذاعة

حياتها الأسرية
نشأت قصة حب بينها وبين الفنان أحمد رزق ولكن انفصلت عنه دون أن يعلن أي من الطرفين أسباب ذلك تزوجت من المخرج السينمائي أمير اليماني في أغسطس 2016

البرتغال

البرتغال (بالبرتغالية Portugal تلفظ ‎[puɾtuˈɡaɫ]‏)، ورسميا الجمهورية البرتغالية (بالبرتغالية República Portuguesa تلفظ ‎[ʁɛˈpublikɐ puɾtuɡezɐ]‏)، بلد يقع في جنوب غرب أوروبا في شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية. البرتغال هي أقصى دول أوروبا باتجاه الغرب، ويحدها المحيط الأطلسي إلى الغرب والجنوب وإسبانيا من الشمال والشرق. كما أن أرخبيلي جزر الأزور وماديرا في المحيط الأطلسي هي أيضًا جزء من البرتغال.

استوطنت الأرض داخل حدود البرتغال الحالية بشكل مستمر منذ عصور ما قبل التاريخ. في عام 29 ق م قطن البلاد الغاليسيون واللوسيتانيين عندما تم دمجها في الإمبراطورية الرومانية باسم مقاطعة لوسيتانيا وجزء من مقاطعة غاليسيا. أثر المستوطنون الرومان بشدة في الثقافة البرتغالية، وخاصة اللغة البرتغالية والتي يستمد معظمها من اللاتينية. في القرن الخامس وبعد سقوط الإمبراطورية الرومانية، خضعت المنطقة لعدة شعوب جرمانية أبرزها السويبيون والقوط الغربيون. في أوائل القرن الثامن غزا المسلمون تلك الممالك الجرمانية وسيطروا على معظم شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية.

خلال فترة سقوط الأندلس، استوطنت البرتغال كجزء من مملكة غاليسيا. تم الاعتراف بتأسيس المملكة عام 1143 واستقرت حدودها بحلول عام 1249، وهي بذلك تدعي كونها أقدم دولة قومية أوروبية. في القرنين الخامس عشر والسادس عشر ونتيجة للاستكشاف البحري توسعت البرتغال لتصبح إمبراطورية عالمية شملت ممتلكاتها أراض في أفريقيا وآسيا وأمريكا الجنوبية، وأصبحت قوة عالمية كبرى اقتصادياً وسياسياً وعسكرياً. كانت الإمبراطورية البرتغالية أولى الإمبراطوريات العالمية، وأطولها عمراً. في عام 1580 بعد أزمة الخلافة على العرش اتحدت مع إسبانيا لفترة عرفت بالاتحاد الإيبيري، ولكن في عام 1640 نالت استقلالها التام خلال حرب الاستعادة البرتغالية والتي أدت إلى إنشاء سلالة جديدة والعودة إلى الفصل السابق بين الإمبراطوريتين.

أدى كل من زلزال لشبونة عام 1755 والغزوات الإسبانية والفرنسية، والتي تلاها فقدان البرتغال لكبرى مستعمراتها البرازيل، أدى ذلك كله إلى تدهور الاستقرار السياسي والنمو الاقتصادي فضلاً عن تراجع مكانة البرتغال الدولية كقوة عالمية خلال القرن التاسع عشر. بعد الاطاحة بالنظام الملكي في عام 1910، برزت جمهورية ديمقراطية غير مستقرة استبدلت بدكتاتورية "استادو نوفو". بعد الحرب البرتغالية الاستعمارية وثورة القرنفل في عام 1974، استعادت البلاد الديمقراطية وتنازلت عن المقاطعات ما وراء البحار المتبقية (أبرزها أنغولا وموزمبيق وغينيا البرتغالية في أفريقيا) وسلمت ماكاو إلى الصين في عام 1999.

تعد البرتغال من البلدان المتقدمة، وتحتل المرتبة 19 عالميًا من حيث جودة الحياة، وفقاً لوحدة معلومات الايكونومست. تصنف أيضًا الدولة 13 الأكثر سلمية والبلد الثامن الأكثر عولمة. هي عضو في الاتحاد الأوروبي (انضمت للسوق الأوروبية المشتركة في عام 1986، وتركت الرابطة الأوروبية للتجارة الحرة حيث كانت عضوًا مؤسسًا في 1960) والأمم المتحدة، وكذلك أحد الأعضاء المؤسسين للاتحاد اللاتيني ومنظمة الدول الأيبيرية الأمريكية ومنظمة التعاون والتنمية الاقتصادية ومنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي ومجموعة البلدان المتحدثة بالبرتغالية ومنطقة اليورو وأيضًا من دول الشنغن.
تشترك البرتغال في تاريخها المبكر مع بقية شبه الجزيرة الأيبيرية. يشتق الاسم البرتغال من الاسم الروماني بورتوس كال. أما في الروايات العربية فيقال أن هذه التسمية تعود إلى وفرة أشجار البرتقال وسماها العرب بلاد البرتقال. استوطن المنطقة السلتيون والشعوب التي سبقتهم، مما أدى إلى ظهور الغاليسيين واللوسيتانيين والسلتيسيين والسينيتيين، بالإضافة إلى شعوب أخرى واردة مثل الفينيقيين والقرطاجيين. خضعت المنطقة للحكم الروماني تحت اسم لوسيتانيا من 45 ق م حتى 298 م، حيث استوطنها السويبيون والبوريون والقوط الغربيون وفتحها لاحقاً المسلمون. من التأثيرات الأخرى الأقل أهمية هي بعض بقايا القرن الخامس من مستوطنات ألان والتي تم العثور عليها في ألنكير وكويمبرا وحتى في لشبونة.
خلال فترة سقوط الأندلس، سيطر المسيحيون الأوروبيون على شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية من المرابطين المسلمين. في عام 868، تم تشكيل أولى مقاطعات البرتغال. يعتبر عادة الانتصار على المسلمين في معركة أوريكي عام 1139 المناسبة التي حولت مقاطعة البرتغال من إقطاعية لمملكة ليون إلى مملكة البرتغال المستقلة.

في 24 يونيو 1128، وقعت معركة ساو ماميد قرب غيمارايس. هزم أفونسو أنريكي كونت البرتغال، والدته الكونتيسة تيريزا وعشيقها فيرناو بيريس دي ترافا، معلنأ نفسه الزعيم الأوحد. أعلن أفونسو أنريكي رسمياً استقلال البرتغال عندما أعلن نفسه ملكاً على البرتغال في 25 يوليو 1139 بعد معركة أوريكي. اعترف به عام 1143 ألفونسو السابع ملك ليون وقشتالة وفي 1179 من قبل البابا الكسندر الثالث.

اندفع أفونسو أنريكي وخلفائه مدعومين بنظام الرهبانية العسكري جنوباً لطرد المسلمين، حيث كانت مساحة البرتغال نصف مساحتها الحالية. في 1249 انتهى التوسع البرتغالي مع الاستيلاء على الغارف بقيادة ألفونسو الثالث على الساحل الجنوبي مما أعطى البرتغال حدودها في الوقت الحاضر مع استثناءات طفيفة.

بين عامي 1348-1349 وعلى غرار بقية أوروبا، فقد دمر الطاعون البرتغال. وفي 1373 أقامت البرتغال معاهدة مع إنجلترا وبعدها في 1387 تم إرساء التحالف الأنجلو-البرتغالية من اعظم التحالف في العالم.

في عام 1383 ادعى ملك قشتالة وهو زوج أبنة الملك البرتغالي الذي توفي دون وريث ذكر، حقه في العرش. قامت حينها ثورة شعبية أدت إلى أزمة 1383-1385. هزم فصيل من النبلاء البسطاء والعوام بقيادة جون من أفيز (في وقت لاحق جواو الأول) مؤيداً بالجنرال نونو ألفارس بيريرا هزموا القشتاليين في معركة ألجوباروتا. يحتفل بهذه المعركة كرمز للمجد والنضال من أجل الاستقلال عن إسبانيا المجاورة.

عهد الاستكشاف والاستعمار
في العقود التالية، قادت البرتغال استكشاف العالم وبدأ عصر الاستكشاف. أصبح الأمير هنري الملاح ابن الملك جواو الأول، الراعي الرئيسي في هذا المسعى.

في سنة 1415، غزت البرتغال أولى مستعمراتها وراء البحار مدينة سبتة والتي كانت بدورها أكبر مركز تجاري إسلامي مزدهر في شمال أفريقيا. ومن هناك تابعت اكتشافاتها الأولى في المحيط الأطلسي: ماديرا وجزر الأزور والتي أدت إلى حركات الاستعمار الأولى.
خلال القرن الخامس عشر أبحر المستكشفون البرتغاليون على طول ساحل أفريقيا. أقاموا مراكز تجارية لأنواع عديدة من السلع القابلة للتداول في ذلك الوقت، بدءاً من الذهب للعبيد وذلك في طريقهم إلى الهند وتوابلها، والتي كانت أوروبا تهيم بها دوماً. عمدت معاهدة تورديسيلاس إلى حل النزاع الذي حصل بعد عودة كريستوفر كولومبوس. وقعت المعاهدة في 7 يونيو 1494 والتي قسمت العالم خارج أوروبا في احتكار ثنائي حصري بين البرتغاليين والأسبان على طول خط الطول بين الشمال والجنوب 370 فرسخ أو 970 ميل (1,560 كـم) غربي جزر الرأس الأخضر.

في سنة 1498، وصل فاسكو دا غاما أخيراً إلى الهند، وبدأ الرخاء الاقتصادي يسود سكان البرتغال البالغ عددهم 1.5 مليون نسمة آنذاك. وفي سنة 1500 اكتشف بيدرو ألفاريز كابرال البرازيل لصالح البرتغال. وبعدها بعشرة أعوام قام ألفونسو دي ألبوكيرك بغزو غوا في الهند ومضيق هرمز على الخليج العربي وملقا في ماليزيا الحالية. هكذا سيطرت الإمبراطورية البرتغالية على التجارة في المحيط الهندي وجنوب المحيط الأطلسي. حاول البحارة البرتغاليون الوصول إلى شرق آسيا بالإبحار شرقاً من أوروبا حاطين في أماكن مثل تايوان واليابان وجزيرة تيمور وربما كانوا أول الأوروبيين اكتشافاً لأستراليا وحتى نيوزيلندا
حددت معاهدة سرقسطة الموقعة في 22 أبريل 1529 بين البرتغال وإسبانيا خط ترسيم الحدود المنصوص عليها في معاهدة تورديسيلاس. فأعطى جزر الملوك إلى البرتغال والفلبين لإسبانيا. ساهمت كل تلك الحقائق في جعل البرتغال قوة كبرى في العالم من الناحية الاقتصادية والعسكرية والسياسية من القرن الخامس عشر إلى بداية القرن السادس عشر.

الاتحاد مع إسبانيا ومحاولة الاستقلالانقطع استقلال البرتغال بين 1580 و1640، بسبب مقتل الملك سيباستيان في معركة وادي المخازن في المغرب. استولى فيليب الثاني ملك إسبانيا على عرش البرتغال بعد أزمة خلافة البرتغالية (1580) وأصبح بذلك فيليب الأول ملك البرتغال. على الرغم من أن البرتغال لم تخسر استقلالها الرسمي، فإنها خضعت لنفس الملك الذي حكم إسبانيا، وبالتالي تشكل اتحاد لفترة وجيزة بين المملكتين كاتحاد شخصي.
اتحاد التيجان حرم البرتغال من سياسة خارجية مستقلة، وأدى إلى تورط البلاد في حرب السنوات الثمانين وهي الحرب التي خاضتها أوروبا في ذلك الوقت بين إسبانيا وهولندا. أدت الحرب إلى تدهور في العلاقات مع الحليف الأقدم للبرتغال ألا وهي إنكلترا وفقدانها لهرمز أيضاً. بين 1595-1663 وبسبب الحرب الهولندية البرتغالية قامت الشركات الهولندية بمهاجمة المستعمرات البرتغالية وسفن شحنهم، ومصالحهم التجارية في البرازيل وأفريقيا والهند والشرق الأقصى، وتحالفوا مع منافسيهم من الزعماء المحليين، وفككوا احتكار تجارة البرتغال في آسيا. فقد تعرضت مستوطنات الإمبراطورية البرتغالية الساحلية والمكشوفة للسقوط الواحدة تلو الأخرى، مما أثبت أنها هدفا أسهل من الإمبراطورية الأسبانية.

في 1640، قاد جون الرابع حفيد كاترين، دوقة براغانزا التي هي مانويل الأول انتفاضة مدعومة النبلاء الساخطين وأصبح الملك المعلن. انتهت حرب الاستعادة البرتغالية بين البرتغال وإسبانيا أعقاب ثورة 1640، بعد 60 عاماً من الاتحاد الإيبيري تحت حكم آل هابسبورغ. كانت هذه بداية لبيت براغانزا، الذين حكموا البرتغال حتى عام 1910. في 1 نوفمبر 1755 ضرب زلزال عنيف مدينة لشبونة، وهي أكبر مدينة وعاصمة الإمبراطورية البرتغالية، مما أدى إلى مقتل الآلاف ودمار أجزاء كبيرة من المدينة. في 1762 غزت إسبانيا الأراضي البرتغالية كجزء من حرب السنوات السبع، لكن وبحلول عام 1763 عاد الوضع بين البلدين إلى ما كان عليه قبل الحرب.

خلال القرن الثامن عشر هاجر ما يقرب من 400,000 شخص إلى البرازيل. وفي خريف عام 1807، تحركت القوات الفرنسية بقيادة نابليون لغزو إسبانيا والبرتغال. استطاعت القوات البريطانية البرتغالية بين 1807-1811 من صد الغزو الفرنسي.