الثلاثاء، 3 ديسمبر 2019

حلف شمال الأطلسي

منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي (بالإنجليزية: North Atlantic Treaty Organization) ويُعرف اختصاراً الناتو (بالإنجليزية: NATO)، بالفرنسية (organisation du Traité de I'Atlantique Nord) اختصاراً (OTNA)، هي منظمة عسكرية دولية تأسست عام 1949م بناءً على معاهدة شمال الأطلسي التي تم التوقيع عليها في واشنطن في 4 ابريل سنة 1949. يشكل حلف الناتو نظاما للدفاع الجماعي تتفق فيه الدول الأعضاء على الدفاع المتبادل رداً على أي هجوم من قبل أطراف خارجية. ثلاثة من أعضاء الناتو (الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وفرنسا والمملكة المتحدة) هم أعضاء دائمين في مجلس الأمن الدولي يتمتعون بـ حق الفيتو وهم رسميا دول حائزة للأسلحة النووية. ويقع المقر الرئيسي لحلف الناتو في هارين، بروكسل، بلجيكا، في حين أن مقر عمليات قيادة حلف الناتو يقع بالقرب من مونس، بلجيكا.

حلف الناتو أو حلف شمال الأطلسي هو تحالف عسكري دولي يتكون من 29 بلد عضو مستقل في جميع أنحاء أمريكا الشمالية وأوروبا. وتشارك 21 دولة أخرى في برنامج الشراكة من أجل السلام التابع لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، مع مشاركة 15 بلدا آخر في برامج الحوار المؤسسي.

كان حلف شمال الأطلسي ما يزال طري العود ولا يغدو كونه أكثر من منظمة سياسية إلى أن حلَّت الحرب الكوريَّة التي رفعت أعداد الدول الأعضاء في المنظمة. إذ حرَّكت تلك الحرب أعضاء هذا التنظيم، وتم بناء هيكل عسكري متكامل تحت إشراف اثنين من القادة الأمريكيين. وأدى مسار الحرب الباردة إلى التنافس مع أمم حلف وارسو، الذي شكل في عام 1955. ثارت الشكوك حول قوة العلاقة بين الدول الأوروبية والولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، إلى جانب الشكوك حول مصداقية دفاع حلف الناتو ضد الاحتلال السوفيتي المستقبلي، مما أدى إلى تطوير الردع النووي الفرنسي المستقل وانسحاب فرنسا من الهيكل العسكري لحلف الناتو في عام 1966 لمدة 30 عاما. بعد سقوط جدار برلين في ألمانيا في عام 1989، شاركت المنظمة في تفكك يوغوسلافيا، وأجرت أول تدخلاتها العسكرية في البوسنة من 1992 إلى 1995 ثم في وقت لاحق يوغوسلافيا في عام 1999. ومن الناحية السياسية، سعت المنظمة إلى تحسين العلاقات مع بلدان حلف وارسو السابقة، التي انضم العديد منها إلى التحالف في عامي 1999 و 2004. وقد تم الاستعانة بالمنظمة، عن طريق المادة 5 من معاهدة شمال الأطلسي، التي تطلب من الدول الأعضاء أن تأتي لمساعدة أي دولة عضو تخضع لهجوم مسلح، للمرة الأولى والوحيدة بعد أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر، التي تم بعدها نشر القوات في أفغانستان تحت قيادة ايساف التابع للناتو في أفغانستان. وقد قامت المنظمة بشغل مجموعة من الأدوار الإضافية منذ ذلك الحين، بما في ذلك إرسال مدربين إلى العراق والمساعدة في عمليات مكافحة القرصنة وفي عام 2011 قام حلف الناتو بفرض منطقة حظر جوي فوق ليبيا وفقا لقرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 1973. أمّا المادة 4 الأقل فعالية، التي تستشهد بالتشاور بين أعضاء حلف الناتو، فقد استند إليها خمس مرات: من قبل تركيا في عام 2003 على حرب العراق؛ مرتين في عام 2012 من قبل تركيا في الحرب الأهلية السورية، بعد إسقاط طائرة استطلاع تركية من طراز F-4 التركي، وبعد إطلاق قذيفة هاون على تركيا من سوريا في عام 2014 من قبل بولندا، بعد التدخل الروسي في شبه جزيرة القرم، ومرة أخرى من قبل تركيا في عام 2015 بعد تهديد الدولة الإسلامية في العراق والشام بسلامتها الإقليمية.

منذ تأسيسها، زادت الدول الأعضاء من 12 دولة أصلية إلى 29 دولة عضو. الدول الأعضاء الأخيرة التي أُضيفت إلى الناتو هي الجبل الأسود في 5 يونيو 2017. حلف شمال الأطلسي يعترف حاليا بالبوسنة والهرسك وجورجيا ومقدونيا كأعضاء طموحين.
كانت معاهدة بروكسل معاهدة دفاع متبادل ضد التهديد السوفيتي في بداية الحرب الباردة. وفي 17 آذار / مارس 1948 وِقِعَت المعاهدة من قبل بلجيكا وهولندا ولوكسمبورغ وفرنسا والمملكة المتحدة. وكان ذلك بمثابة تقدم لحلف شمال الأطلسي. أصبح التهديد السوفيتي مباشرا مع حصار برلين في عام 1948، مما أدى إلى إنشاء منظمة اتحاد أوروبا الغربية في سبتمبر 1948. ومع ذلك، كانت الأطراف ضعيفة جدا عسكريا لمواجهة القوة العسكرية للاتحاد السوفيتي. هذا بالإضافة إلى انقلاب تشيكوسلوفاكيا 1948 من قبل الشيوعيين الذي أطاح بالحكومة الديمقراطية، وأكد وزير الخارجية البريطاني إرنست بفين أن أفضل طريقة لمنع انقلاب اخر هي تطوير إستراتيجية عسكرية غربية مشتركة. وافقته الولايات المتحدة في هذا، خاصة بالنظر للقلق الأمريكي حول إيطاليا (والحزب الشيوعي الإيطالي).

في عام 1948، التقى القادة الأوروبيون مع مسؤولي دفاع وعسكريين ودبلوماسيين في البنتاغون، بناء على أوامر وزير الخارجية الأمريكي جورج سي مارشال. وأسفرت المحادثات من أجل تحالف عسكري جديد عن توقيع معاهدة حلف شمال الأطلسي، التي وقعها الرئيس الأمريكي هاري ترومان في واشنطن العاصمة في 4 نيسان / أبريل 1949. وقد شملت المعاهدة الخماسية لدول بروكسل بالإضافة إلى الولايات المتحدة وكندا والبرتغال وإيطاليا والنرويج والدانمرك وايسلندا. وقد ذكر الأمين العام الأول للناتو، اللورد إسماي في عام 1949 أن هدف المنظمة هو "إبقاء الروس خارجا، والأمريكيين داخلا، وإسقاط الألمان". ولم يكن التاييد الشعبي للمعاهدة إجماعيا، وشارك بعض الأيسلنديين في اعمال شغب مؤيدة للحياد ومناهضة للعضوية في آذار/مارس 1949. ويمكن النظر إلى إنشاء منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي باعتبارها النتيجة المؤسسية الرئيسية لمدرسة الفكر المسماة الاطلسية والتي شددت على اهمية التعاون الأطلسي.

إتفق الأعضاء على إن الهجوم المسلح على أي منهم في أوروبا أو أمريكا الشمالية سيعتبر هجوما ضدهم جميعا. وبناءاً على ذلك، إتفقوا على انه في حال وقوع هجوم مسلح، فان كلاً منهم، ممارسة منه للحق في الدفاع الفردي أو الجماعي عن النفس بما من شأنه أن يساعد العضو الذي يتعرض للهجوم، أن يتخذ ما يراه ضرورياً من إجراءات، بما في ذلك استخدام القوة المسلحة، لإستعادة أمن منطقة ولا تشترط المعاهدة على الأعضاء الرد بإجراءات عسكرية ضد المعتدي. وعلى الرغم من إنهم مُلزَمون بالرد، فإنهم يحافظون على حرية اختيار الطريقة التي يفعلون بها ذلك. وهذا يختلف عن المادة الرابعة من معاهدة بروكسل، التي تنص بوضوح على إن الرد سيكون عسكريا بطبيعته. ومع ذلك، يفترض إن أعضاء الناتو سيساعدون العضو المعتدى عليه عسكريا. وقد تم توضيح المعاهدة فيما بعد لتشمل كلاً من أقاليم العضو و "سفنه أو قواته أو طائراته" فوق مدار السرطان، بما في ذلك بعض أقاليم ما وراء البحار الفرنسية.

وقد أدى إنشاء الناتو إلى توحيد بعض المصطلحات والإجراءات والتكنولوجيا العسكرية المتحالفة التي تعني في كثير من الحالات البلدان الاوروبية التي تتبني ممارسات امريكية. كما تم توحيد الإشارات الخاصة بتنظيم الطائرات، بحيث يمكن لأي طائرة تابعة لحلف شمال الأطلسي أن تهبط في اي قاعدة من قواعد الناتو. وقد قطعت معايير أخرى مثل الابجدية الصوتية لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي طريقها إلى خارج الحلف لاستخدامها من قبل المدنيين.

الحرب الباردة
كان إندلاع الحرب الكورية سنة 1950 حدث هام بالنسبة لمنظمة الناتو، لأنها رفعت من درجة الخطر (إذ كان يشتبه أن تكون كل الدول الاشتراكية تعمل معاً) وأرغم التحالف على تطوير خطط عسكرية متقنة. عقد مؤتمر لشبونة عام 1952، سعياً لتزويد القوى اللازمة لخطة الناتو الدفاعية طويلة المدى، وتمت الدعوة إلى التوسع إلى 96 فرع. لكن تم إسقاط هذا المطلب في السنة اللاحقة إلى 35 فرع فحسب مع استخدام أكبر للأسلحة النووية. وفي الوقت الحالي، يمكن لحلف الناتو أن يدعو إلى حوالي خمس عشرة فرقة جاهزة في أوروبا الوسطى، وعشرة آخرين في إيطاليا وإسكندنافيا. في لشبونة أيضً، أُنشِئ منصب الأمين العام لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بوصفه الرئيس المدني للمنظمة، وعُين اللورد إسماي في النهاية في المنصب.
وفي أيلول/سبتمبر 1952، بدات المناورات البحرية الرئيسية الأولى لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي؛ وجمعت المناورات 200 من السفن وأكثر من 50,000 موظفا للتدريب على الدفاع عن الدنمارك والنرويج. كما انضمت اليونان وتركيا إلى التحالف في 1952، مما فرض سلسلة من المفاوضات المثيرة للجدل، كانت فيها الولايات المتحدة وبريطانيا المتنازعين الرئيسيين حول كيفية إدخال البلدين في هيكل القيادة العسكرية. وفي الوقت الذي كان يجري فيه هذا الاستعداد العسكري العلني، فإن ترتيبات البقاء الخفية التي اتخذها اتحاد أوروبا الغربية في البداية لمواصلة المقاومة بعد الغزو السوفيتي الناجح، بما في ذلك عملية غلاديو، قد نقلت إلى سيطرة الناتو. وفي نهاية المطاف، بدأت السندات غير الرسمية تنمو بين القوات المسلحة لحلف شمال الأطلسي، مثل رابطة نمور الناتو والمسابقات مثل كأس الجيش الكندي لمدفعية الدبابات.

اقترح الاتحاد السوفيتي عام 1954 أن ينضم إلى منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي للحفاظ على السلام في أوروبا. ورفضت بلدان الناتو هذا الاقتراح في نهاية المطاف خشية أن يكون دافع الاتحاد السوفيتي هو إضعاف التحالف.

وفي 17 كانون الأول/ديسمبر 1954، وافق مجلس شمال الأطلسي على الوثيقة النموذجية 48، التي تمثل الورقة الرئيسية في تطور الفكرة النووية للناتو. وأكدت المنظمة إن الناتو سيتعين عليه استخدام الأسلحة الذرية منذ بداية الحرب مع الإتحاد السوفييتي سواء اختار السوفييت استخدامها أولاً أم لا. وقد أُعطي ذلك المركز نفس الامتيازات المتعلقة بالاستخدام التلقائي للأسلحة النووية.

وقد وصف هالفارد لانج، وزير خارجية النرويج في ذلك الوقت، دمج ألمانيا الغربية في المنظمة في 9 أيار/مايو 1955 بأنه "نقطة تحول حاسمة في تاريخ قارتنا". ومن الأسباب الرئيسية لانضمام ألمانيا إلى التحالف انه لولا القوى المسلحة الألمانية لكان من المستحيل أن تكون هناك قوات كافية لمقاومة الغزو السوفيتي. كانت إحدى النتائج المباشرة إنشاء ميثاق وارسو، الذي وقعه في 14 أيار/مايو 1955 الاتحاد السوفييتي، وهنغاريا، وتشيكوسلوفاكيا، وبولندا، وبلغاريا، ورومانيا، وألبانيا، وألمانيا الشرقية، كرد رسمي على هذا الحدث، الذي ميز الجانبين المتعارضين في الحرب الباردة.

الانسحاب الفرنسي
إهتزت وحدة الناتو في وقت مبكر من تاريخها بسبب أزمة وقعت خلال فترة رئاسة شارل ديغول لفرنسا. وإحتج ديغول على الدور القوي الذي تقوم به الولايات المتحدة في المنظمة وما اعتبره علاقة خاصة بينها وبين المملكة المتحدة. وفي مذكرة أُرسلت إلى الرئيس دوايت أيزنهاور ورئيس الوزراء هارولد ماكميلان في 17 أيلول/سبتمبر 1958، دعا إلى إنشاء مديرية ثلاثية الابعاد تضع فرنسا على قدم المساواة مع الولايات المتحدة وبريطانيا. وبالنظر إلى الرد غير المرض، بدأ ديغول في بناء قوة دفاع مستقلة لبلده. وأراد أن يعطي فرنسا، في حالة توغل ألمانيا الشرقية في ألمانيا الغربية، خيار التوصل إلى سلام منفصل مع الكتلة الشرقية بدلا من الدخول في حرب أكبر. وفي شباط/فبراير 1959، سحبت فرنسا أسطولها من قيادة منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، وحظرت في وقت لاحق وضع أسلحة نووية أجنبية على الأراضي الفرنسية. وقد أدى ذلك بالولايات المتحدة إلى نقل 200 طائرة عسكرية من فرنسا وإعادة السيطرة على قواعد القوات الجوية التي كانت تعمل في فرنسا منذ 1950 إلى القوات الفرنسية في عام 1967. وعلى الرغم من أن فرنسا أظهرت تضامنها مع بقية حلف شمال الأطلسي خلال أزمة الصواريخ الكوبية في عام 1962، واصل ديغول سعيه للحصول على دفاع مستقل عن طريق إزالة أساطيل فرنسا الأطلسية والقناتية من قيادة الناتو. وفي عام 1966، تمت إزالة جميع القوات المسلحة الفرنسية من القيادة العسكرية للناتو، وطلب من جميع قوات الناتو غير الفرنسية مغادرة فرنسا. وقد نقل عن وزير الخارجية الأمريكي دين روسك في وقت لاحق بأنه يسأل ديغول ما إذا كان أمره يتضمن "جثث الجنود الأمريكيين المدفونة في مقابر فرنسا؟" ظلت فرنسا عضوا في التحالف، وإلتزمت بالدفاع عن أوروبا في حال هجوم حلف وارسو، مع قواتها المتمركزة في جمهورية ألمانيا الاتحادية طوال الحرب الباردة. وكان هناك سلسلة من الاتفاقات السرية بين المسؤولين الأميركيين والفرنسيين، إتفاقات ليمنيتزر-إيليريت، توضح بالتفصيل كيفية انسجام القوات الفرنسية في هيكل قيادة الناتو في حال إندلاع الأعمال العدائية بين الشرق والغرب. أعلنت فرنسا عودتها للمشاركة الكاملة في قمة ستراسبورغ - كيهل عام 2009.

الإنفراج والتصعيد
خلال معظم فترة الحرب الباردة، لم تؤد المراقبة التي قامت بها منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي ضد الاتحاد السوفيتي وإتفاق وارسو إلى أي عمل عسكري مباشر. وفي 1 تموز/يوليو 1968، فتح باب التوقيع على معاهدة عدم انتشار الاسلحة النووية. إحتجت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بأن ترتيباتها المتعلقة بالمشاركة النووية لا تنتهك المعاهدة لأن القوات الأمريكية تسيطر على الأسلحة إلى حين اتخاذ قرار بالذهاب إلى الحرب. ولم يعرف سوى عدد قليل من الدول عن ترتيبات المشاركة النووية لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي في ذلك الوقت، ولم يطعن أحد فيها. وفي أيار/مايو 1978، حددت بلدان الناتو رسميا هدفين متكاملين للتحالف، وهما الحفاظ على الأمن والسعي إلى تحقيق الانفراج.

وفي 12 كانون الأول/ديسمبر 1979، وفي ضوء تعزيز القدرات النووية لحلف وارسو في أوروبا، وافق الوزراء على نشر القذائف الإنسيابية الأمريكية والأسلحة النووية في الساحة الثانية في أوروبا. وكان القصد من الرؤوس الحربية الجديدة أيضا تعزيز الموقف التفاوضي الغربي فيما يتعلق بنزع السلاح النووي. وكانت هذه السياسة تسمى سياسة المسار المزدوج. وبالمثل، في الفترة من 1983 إلى 1984، قامت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، استجابة منها لوضع قذائف متوسطة المدى من طراز SS-20 في أوروبا، بنشر قذائف "بيرشينغ 2" الحديثة التي كلفت بضرب أهداف عسكرية في حالة الحرب. وقد أدى هذا العمل إلى احتجاجات من حركة السلام في جميع انحاء أوروبا الغربية.

بقيت عضوية المنظمة في هذا الوقت مستقرة إلى حد كبير. وفي 1974، ونتيجة للغزو التركي لقبرص، سحبت اليونان قواتها من هيكل القيادة العسكرية لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي،
ولكن، وبتعاون تركي، أعيد قبولها في 1980. ولم تتدخل منظمة الحلف الأطلسي خلال حرب الفوكلاند بين المملكة المتحدة والأرجنتين لان المادة 6 من معاهدة شمال الأطلسي تنص على إن الدفاع الجماعي عن النفس لا ينطبق إلا على الهجمات التي تستهدف الأراضي التابعة للدول الأعضاء الواقعة شمال مدار السرطان. في 30 أيار/مايو 1982، اكتسب حلف شمال الأطلسي عضوا جديدا عندما إنضمت إسبانيا الديمقراطية الحديثة إلى التحالف؛ وقد أُكدت عضوية إسبانيا بإستفتاء أُجري في 1986. وفي ذروة الحرب الباردة، حافظت 16 دولة عضوا على قوة تقريبية قوامها 5,252,800 عسكريا نشطا، في اطار هيكل قيادي بلغ 78 مقرا، وتم تنظيمه في أربعة مستويات.

ما بعد الحرب الباردة
أدت ثورات 1989 وتفكك حلف وارسو في عام 1991 إلى أزالة الخصم الرئيسي الفعلي لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، وأدت إلى أعادة تقييم إستراتيجية غرض الناتو وطبيعته ومهامه. وقد بدأ هذا التحول بالتوقيع في باريس على معاهدة القوات المسلحة التقليدية في أوروبا بين الناتو والاتحاد السوفيتي، والتي نصت على إجراء تخفيضات عسكرية محددة في جميع انحاء القارة إستمرت بعد تفكك الاتحاد السوفيتي في كانون الأول/ديسمبر 1991. وفي ذلك الوقت، إستأثرت الدول الاوروبية بنسبة 34 في المائة من الإنفاق العسكري للناتو؛ وبحلول 2012، انخفض هذا المعدل إلى 21 في المائة. وبدأت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي أيضا توسعا تدريجيا ليشمل الدول المستقلة حديثا في أوروبا الوسطى والشرقية، ووسعت أنشطتها لتشمل الحالات السياسية والانسانية التي لم تكن في السابق من شواغل الناتو.

وجاء التوسع الأول للناتو بعد الحرب الباردة مع أعادة توحيد ألمانيا في 3 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 1990، عندما أصبحت المنطقة الشرقية السابقة جزءا من جمهورية ألمانيا الاتحادية والتحالف. وقد تم الاتفاق على ذلك في معاهدة الاثنين زائد أربعة في وقت سابق من العام. ولضمان موافقة الاتحاد السوفيتي على بقاء ألمانيا موحدة في الناتو، تم الاتفاق على إن القوات الأجنبية والأسلحة النووية لن تتمركز في الشرق، وإن هناك آراء متباينة حول ما إذا كان المتفاوضون قد تعهدوا بالتزامات تتعلق بزيادة توسيع الناتو في الشرق.
وقال جاك ماتلوك السفير الأمريكي لدى الاتحاد السوفيتي خلال السنوات الأخيرة إن الغرب أعطى "التزامًا واضحًا" بعدم التوسع، وإن الوثائق السرية تشير إلى إن المفاوضين السوفيات أُعطيوا إنطباعا بان عضوية الناتو كانت خارج الطاولة لبعض البلدان مثل تشيكوسلوفاكيا، هنغاريا أوبولندا.

وقال هانز ديتريش غينشر وزير خارجية ألمانيا الغربية في ذلك الوقت في محادثة مع إدوارد شيفردنادزه إن "هناك شيء واحد مؤكد وهو إن حلف الناتو لن يتوسع إلى الشرق". كتب غورباتشيف في عام 1966 في مذكراته انه "خلال المفاوضات حول توحيد ألمانيا أعطوا تأكيدات إن حلف شمال الأطلسي لن يمدد منطقة عملياته إلى الشرق". وقد كرر هذا الرأي في مقابلة في عام 2008. وكجزء من أعادة الهيكلة في فترة ما بعد الحرب الباردة، تم تخفيض الهيكل العسكري للناتو وإعادة تنظيمه، مع إنشاء قوات جديدة مثل فيلق الرد السريع التابع لقيادة الحلفاء في المقر الأوروبي. وقد تم الاعتراف بالتغييرات التي أحدثها انهيار الاتحاد السوفيتي على التوازن العسكري في أوروبا في المعاهدة المعدلة للقوات المسلحة التقليدية في أوروبا، والتي تم التوقيع عليها في 1999. وأسفرت سياسات الرئيس الفرنسي نيكولا ساركوزي عن إصلاح كبير في الموقف العسكري لفرنسا، توج بعودة العضوية الكاملة في 4 نيسان/ابريل 2009، التي شملت أيضا انضمام فرنسا إلى هيكل القيادة العسكرية لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، مع المحافظة على رادع نووي مستقل.

التوسيع والإصلاح
وفي الفترة بين 1994 و1997، أنشئت محافل أوسع للتعاون الإقليمي بين الناتو وجيرانه، مثل الشراكة من أجل السلام، ومبادرة الحوار المتوسطي، ومجلس الشراكة الأوروبية الأطلسية. وفي 1998، أنشئ المجلس المشترك الدائم بين منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي وروسيا. وفي 8 تموز/يوليو 1997، وجهت الدعوة إلى ثلاثة بلدان شيوعية سابقة، هي الجمهورية التشيكية وبولندا وهنغاريا، للانضمام إلى الحلف، حيث انظمّ كل منها في 1999. واستمرت العضوية في التوسع بانضمام سبعة بلدان أخرى من أوروبا الوسطى والشرقية إلى منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، هذه الدول هي: إستونيا، ولاتفيا، وليتوانيا، وسلوفينيا، وسلوفاكيا، وبلغاريا، ورومانيا. دُعيَت هذه الدول أول مرة إلى بدء محادثات العضوية خلال قمة براغ 2002، وانضمت إلى المنظمة في 29 آذار/مارس 2004، قبيل مؤتمر قمة إسطنبول. وفي ذلك الوقت انتقد العديد من القادة العسكريين والسياسيين والأكاديميين في الولايات الأمريكية القرار بأنه "خطأ سياسي ذو أبعاد تاريخية".

أنشئت هياكل جديدة للناتو في حين ألغيت أخرى قديمة. وفي 1997، توصلت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي إلى اتفاق بشان تخفيض كبير في هيكل قيادتها من 65 مقر قيادي إلى 20 فقط.. وفي آذار/مارس 2004، بدأت أعمال الشرطة الجوية البلطيقية التابعة لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، والتي دعمت سيادة لاتفيا وليتوانيا وأستونيا بتوفيرها مقاتلات نفاثة للرد على أية اقتحامات جوية غير مرغوب فيها. حيث وضع في ليتوانيا ثمانية مقاتلات متعددة الجنسيات. وفي 2004 أيضا في قمة إسطنبول، أطلق حلف الناتو مبادرة اسطنبول للتعاون مع أربع من دول الخليج العربي.

عقد مؤتمر قمة ريغا 2006 في ريغا، لاتفيا، وفيه سُلط الضوء على مسالة أمن الطاقة. وكانت أول قمة للناتو تعقد في بلد كان جزءا من الاتحاد السوفيتي. وفي القمة التي عقدت في نيسان/ابريل 2008 في بوخارست برومانيا، وافقت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي على انضمام كرواتيا وألبانيا، وانضم البلدان إلى الناتو في نيسان/ابريل 2009. وأُبلغت أوكرانيا وجورجيا أيضا بأنهما يمكن أن تصبحا عضوين في نهاية المطاف. وقد أثارت قضية العضوية لجورجيا وأوكرانيا في الناتو انتقادات قاسية من روسيا، وكذلك فعلت خطط الناتو لنظام الدفاع الصاروخي. وبدأت الدراسات المتعلقة بهذا النظام في 2002. وعلى الرغم من إن قادة الناتو قدموا تأكيدات بأن النظام لا يستهدف روسيا، فقد انتقده كلا الرئيسين فلاديمير بوتين وديمتري ميدفيديف باعتباره تهديدا. وفي عام 2009، اقترح الرئيس الأمريكي باراك أوباما استخدام نظام "Aegis Combat System"، على الرغم من إن هذه الخطة لا تزال تشمل محطات يجري بناؤها في تركيا واسبانيا والبرتغال ورومانيا وبولندا. وقال الناتو إنه سيحافظ على "الوضع الراهن" في الردع النووي في أوروبا من خلال تحسين قدرات الاستهداف للقنابل النووية "التكتيكية" B61 المتمركزة هناك ونشر مقاتلات لوكهيد مارتن إف-35 لايتنيغ الثانية سرياً.

وعقب قيام روسيا بضم القرم في 2014، التزمت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بتشكيل قوة "طليعية" جديدة قوامها 5,000 جنديا في قواعد في استونيا وليتوانيا ولاتفيا وبولندا ورومانيا وبلغاريا. وفي قمة ويلز في عام 2014، أكد قادة الدول الأعضاء في الناتو مجددا تعهدهم بانفاق ما يعادل 2 في المائة على الأقل من إجمالي منتجاتهم المحلية على الدفاع. وفي 2015، خمسة من أعضائها ال 28 حققوا ذلك الهدف. في 15 حزيران/يونيو 2016، اعتبرت الناتو الحرب الألكترونية أو حرب الإنترنت كمجال عملي للحرب، تماما مثل الأرض والبحر والحرب الجوية، مما يعني أن اي هجوم إلكتروني على أعضاء الحلف يمكن أن يثير المادة 5 من معاهدة شمال الأطلسي. وفي 5 حزيران/يونيو 2017 أصبح الجبل الأسود العضو التاسع والعشرين والأحدث في الناتو، وسط اعتراضات قوية من روسيا.

عمليات عسكرية
العمليات المبكرة
لم تقم الناتو بأي عمليات عسكرية خلال الحرب الباردة. وعقب إنتهاء هذه الحرب، كانت العمليات الاولى،"Anchor Guard" في 1990، و"Ace Guard" في 1991، مدفوعة بالغزو العراقي للكويت. وأرسلت طائرات الإنذار المبكر المحمولة جوا لتوفير تغطية لجنوب شرق تركيا، بالإضافة لنشر قوة للرد السريع في المنطقة.

تدخل البوسنة والهرسك
بدأت حرب البوسنة والهرسك في 1992 نتيجة لتفكك يوغوسلافيا. وأدت الحالة المتدهورة إلى قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة 816 في 9 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 1992، والذي أمر بإنشاء منطقة حظر جوي فوق وسط البوسنة والهرسك، والتي بدأ حلف شمال الأطلسي تنفيذها في 12 نيسان/ابريل 1993. وفي الفترة من حزيران/يونيو 1993 حتى تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 1996، أضافت عملية "sharp guard" حظر توريد الأسلحة وعقوبات مالية وتجارية ضد جمهورية يوغوسلافيا الاتحادية. وفي 28 شباط/فبراير 1994، إتخذ حلف شمال الأطلسي أول إجراء عملي له في زمن الحرب بإسقاطه أربع طائرات صربية بوسنية منتهكة لمنطقة حظر الطيران. وفي العاشر والحادي عشر من نيسان/ابريل 1994، خلال حرب البوسنة والهرسك، دعت قوة الحماية التابعة للأمم المتحدة إلى شن غارات جوية لحماية منطقة غورازده الآمنة، مما أدى إلى قصف مخفر للقيادة العسكرية الصربي-البوسني بالقرب من غورازده بواسطة طائرتين أمريكيتين من طراز اف-16 تعملان بتوجيه من الناتو. وأسفر ذلك عن أخذ 150 من موظفي الأمم المتحدة كرهائن في 14 نيسان / أبريل. وفي 16 نيسان/ابريل، أسقطت القوات الصربية طائرة بريتش ايروسبيس هارير البحر فوق غوردازة. وفي آب / أغسطس 1995، بدأت حملة قصف تابعة لمنظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي (الناتو)، مدتها أسبوعان، في آب / أغسطس 1995 ضد جيش جمهورية صرب البوسنة، بعد مذبحة سريبرينيتسا. وقد ساعدت الضربات الجوية التي شنتها منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي في ذلك العام على إنهاء الحروب اليوغوسلافية، مما أسفر عن اتفاقية دايتون في تشرين الثاني/نوفمبر 1995. وكجزء من هذا الاتفاق، قامت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بنشر قوة لحفظ السلام بتكليف من الأمم المتحدة، وذلك في اطار عملية مشتركة، المسماة IFOR. وقد إنضمت قوات من دول غير أعضاء في منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي في مهمة حفظ السلام هذه إلى حوالي 60,000 جنديا من قوات الناتو. وقد انتقل هذا الأمر إلى قوة تثبيت الاستقرار SFOR، التي بدات بقوة 32,000 في البداية وإمتدت من كانون الأول/ديسمبر 1996 حتى كانون الأول/ديسمبر 2004، عندما نقلت العمليات بعد ذلك إلى قوة الثيا التابعة للاتحاد الأوروبي. وفي أعقاب قيادة الدول الأعضاء فيها، بدأت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بمنح وسام الخدمة، وسام الناتو، لهذه العمليات.

تدخل كوسوفو
في محاولة لوقف حملة سلوبودان ميلوسيفيتش التي يقودها الصرب ضد الانفصاليين من جيش تحرير كوسوفو والمدنيين الألبان في كوسوفو، أصدر مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة القرار 1199 في 23 أيلول/سبتمبر 1998 للمطالبة بوقف إطلاق النار. وقد إنهارت المفاوضات التي تجري بقيادة المبعوث الخاص الأمريكي ريتشارد هولبروك في 23 آذار/مارس 1999، حيث قام بتسليم المسألة إلى منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي، التي بدأت حملة قصف إستمرت 78 يوما في 24 آذار/مارس 1999. واستهدفت عملية القوة المتحالفة القدرات العسكرية لما كان آنذاك جمهورية يوغوسلافيا الاتحادية. وخلال ألازمة، قامت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي أيضا بنشر إحدى قوات الرد الدولية التابعة لها، وهي القوة المتنقلة (البرية)، في ألبانيا بوصفها القوة الألبانية، لإيصال المعونة الانسانية إلى اللاجئين من كوسوفو.

وعلى الرغم من أن الحملة اإنتُقِدَت لإرتفاع عدد الضحايا من المدنيين، بما في ذلك قصف السفارة الصينية في بلغراد، فقد قبل ميلوسفيتش أخيرا شروط خطة السلام الدولية في 3 حزيران/يونية 1999، وبذلك إنتهت حرب كوسوفو. وفي 11 حزيران/يونيو، قبل ميلوسيفيتش كذلك قرار الأمم المتحدة 1244، حيث ساهمت المنظمة بعد ذلك على إنشاء قوة حفظ السلام التابعة لقوة كوسوفو. وقد فر ما يقرب من 1,000,000 لاجئ من كوسوفو. وفي آب-أيلول 2001، شن الحلف أيضا عملية لنزع سلاح الميليشيات الألبانية الإثنية في جمهورية مقدونيا. وحتى 1 كانون الأول / ديسمبر 2013، إستمر 4882 جنديا من قوة كوسوفو، يمثلون 31 بلدا، بالعمل في المنطقة.

وعارضت الولايات المتحدة وبريطانيا ومعظم دول الناتو الجهود الرامية إلى مطالبة مجلس الأمن الدولي بالموافقة على الضربات العسكرية للناتو مثل العمليات ضد صربيا في 1999 بينما أعلنت فرنسا وبعض الدول الأخرى إن الحلف يحتاج إلى موافقة الأمم المتحدة. وزعم الجانب الأمريكي/البريطاني إن هذا سيقوض سلطة التحالف، وأشاروا إلى إن روسيا والصين ستمارسان حق النقض (الفيتو) في مجلس الأمن لمنع الضربات على يوغوسلافيا، ويمكن أن تفعلا نفس الشيء في الصراعات المستقبلية حيثما تدخل الناتو يكون مطلوبا، وبالتالي يبطل الفعالية والغرض الكاملين للمنظمة. واعترافا بالبيئة العسكرية التي أعقبت الحرب الباردة، اعتمدت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي المفهوم الإستراتيجي للتحالف خلال مؤتمر قمتها في واشنطن في نيسان/ابريل 1999 الذي أكد على منع الصراعات وأدارة ألازمات.

الحرب في أفغانستان
أدت هجمات 11 سبتمبر في الولايات المتحدة إلى احتجاج المنظمة بالمادة 5 من ميثاق الناتو لأول مرة في تاريخها. وتنص المادة على إن الهجوم على اي عضو من أعضائها يعتبر هجوماً على الجميع. وتم تأكيد الاحتجاج في 4 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2001. وشملت الإجراءات الرسمية الثمانية التي إتخذها حلف الناتو ردا على الهجمات عملية "Eagle Assist" وعملية "Active Endeavour"، وهي عملية بحرية في البحر الأبيض المتوسط تهدف إلى منع حركة الإرهابيين أو أسلحة الدمار الشامل، كما تم كذلك تعزيز أمن النقل البحري بشكل عام والذي بدأ في 4 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2001. وأظهر التحالف الوحدة.

في 16 نيسان/ابريل 2003، وافقت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي على تولي قيادة القوة الدولية للمساعدة الامنية (إيساف ISAF)، التي تضم قوات من 42 بلدا. جاء هذا القرار بناء على طلب ألمانيا وهولندا، وهما الدولتان اللتان كانتا تقودان إيساف وقت إبرام الاتفاق، ووافق عليه جميع سفراء الناتو التسعة عشر بالإجماع. وقد تم تسليم السيطرة إلى الناتو في 11 أب/أغسطس، وكانت هذه هي المرة الأولى في تاريخ الناتو تولت فيها المنظمة المسؤولية عن بعثة خارج منطقة شمال الأطلسي.

وكانت القوة الدولية قد كُلفت في البداية بتأمين كابل والمناطق المحيطة بها من طالبان والقاعدة للسماح بإنشاء الادارة الانتقالية الافغانية برئاسة حامد كرزاي. وفي تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2003، أذن مجلس الأمن بتوسيع بعثة القوة الدولية في جميع انحاء أفغانستان، وقامت القوة الدولية بعد ذلك بتوسيع نطاق البعثة في أربع مراحل رئيسية في جميع انحاء البلد. وفي 31 تموز/يوليو 2006، استولت القوة الدولية (إيساف) على عمليات عسكرية في جنوب أفغانستان من تحالف مكافحة الإرهاب بقيادة الولايات الامريكية. وبسبب كثافة القتال في الجنوب، سمحت فرنسا في 2011 بنقل سرب من طائرات داسو ميراج 2000 إلى المنطقة، إلى مطار قندهار الدولي، من أجل تعزيز جهود التحالف. وخلال القمة التي عقدتها المنظمة في شيكاغو 2012، أقر الناتو خطة لإنهاء الحرب في أفغانستان وأزالة القوه الدولية بقيادة الناتو بنهاية ديسمبر 2014. تم إلغاء القوة الدولية للمساعدة الامنية في كانون الأول/ديسمبر 2014 واستعيض عنها ببعثة أخرى.

بعثة التدريب في العراق
في أب/أغسطس 2004، خلال حرب العراق، شكلت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بعثة التدريب التابعة للناتو-العراق، وهي بعثة تدريب لمساعدة قوات الأمن العراقية بالتعاون مع القوات المتعددة الجنسيات التي تقودها الولايات المتحدة. أنشئت بعثة التدريب هذه بناءاً على طلب الحكومة العراقية المؤقتة بموجب أحكام قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 1546.

وكان الهدف من هذا البرنامج المساعدة في تطوير الهياكل والمؤسسات التدريبية لقوات الأمن العراقية. وكانت هذه البعثة تقع تحت السيطرة السياسية لمجلس شمال الأطلسي التابع للناتو. وإنصب تركيزها التنفيذي على التدريب والتوجيه. وتم تنسيق أنشطة البعثة مع السلطات العراقية ونائب القائد العام للولايات المتحدة لتقديم المشورة والتدريب. واختتمت البعثة رسميا في 17 كانون الأول/ديسمبر 2011.

خليج عدن لمكافحة القرصنة
اعتبارا من 17 أب/أغسطس 2009، نشرت منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي سفناً حربية في عملية لحماية الحركة البحرية في خليج عدن والمحيط الهندي من القراصنة الصوماليين، والمساعدة في تعزيز البحرية وخفر السواحل في دول المنطقة. وقد وافق مجلس شمال الأطلسي على العملية التي شملت سفنا حربية من الولايات المتحدة بالدرجة الاولى مع وجود سفن من دول كثيرة أخرى مدرجه أيضا.

وتركز عملية درع المحيط على حماية سفن عمليات التحالف التي تقوم بتوزيع المعونة كجزء من بعثة برنامج الأغذية العالمي في الصومال. وقد أرسلت روسيا والصين وكوريا الجنوبية سفناً حربية للمشاركة في هذه الانشطة أيضا. تسعى العملية إلى ثني ووقف هجمات القراصنة، وحماية السفن، والتحريض على زيادة المستوى العام للأمن في المنطقة.

التدخل في ليبيا
خلال الحرب الاهلية الليبية، تصاعد العنف بين المتظاهرين والحكومة الليبية بقيادة العقيد معمر القذافي، وفي 17 آذار/مارس 2011 صدر قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة المرقم 1973، الذي دعا إلى وقف إطلاق النار، وأذن بالقيام بتحرك عسكري لحماية المدنيين. وقد بدأ تحالف يضم عدداً من أعضاء الناتو في فرض منطقة حظر طيران على ليبيا. وفي 20 آذار/مارس 2011، اتفقت دول منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي على فرض حظر على توريد الاسلحة إلى ليبيا.

وفي 24 آذار/مارس، وافق حلف الناتو على إلتزام السيطرة على منطقة حظر الطيران، في حين ظلت قيادة استهداف الوحدات البرية تتبع قوات حلف الناتو. بدأت قوات حلف شمال الأطلسي تنفيذ قرار الأمم المتحدة رسميا في 27 آذار/مارس 2011 بمساعدة القوات الجوية الإماراتية و القطرية ، وبحلول يونيو، ظهرت تقارير الإنقسامات داخل التحالف حيث لم يشارك في العمليات القتالية سوى ثماني دول من بين 28 دولة عضوا، مما أدى إلى مواجهة بين وزير الدفاع الأمريكي روبرت غيتس ودول مثل بولندا وإسبانيا وهولندا وتركيا وألمانيا للإسهام بشكل أكبر. وفي خطابه السياسي الأخير الذي ألقاه في بروكسل في 10 حزيران/يونيو، إنتقد غيتس أيضا البلدان الحليفة بالقول إن اعمالهم ستؤدي إلى تفكك الناتو. وأشارت وزارة الخارجية الالمانية إلى "مساهمة [ألمّانية] كبيرة في الناتو وعمليات الناتو" وإلى أن هذه المشاركة كانت موضع تقدير كبير من قبل الرئيس أوباما.


الدول المشاركة
توسيع الناتو
كان الأعضاء الجدد في التحالف بصورة رئيسية من أوروبا الوسطى والشرقية، بما في ذلك الأعضاء السابقون في حلف وارسو. يخضع الانضمام إلى التحالف لخطط عمل العضوية الفردية، ويتطلب موافقة كل عضو حالي من أعضاء الناتو. ولدى منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي حاليا دولتان مرشحتان للانضمام إلى التحالف وهما: البوسنة والهرسك وجمهورية مقدونيا. وفي البيانات الرسمية للناتو، يشار دائمًا إلى جمهورية مقدونيا باسم "جمهورية مقدونيا اليوغوسلافية السابقة"، مع حاشية تنص على أن "تركيا تعترف بجمهورية مقدونيا تحت التسمية الدستورية".وعلى الرغم من إن مقدونيا أكملت متطلباتها للعضوية في نفس الوقت الذي أكملتها فيه كرواتيا وألبانيا، وهي آخر الدول المنظمة للناتو، فإن انضمامها قد اعاقته اليونان ريثما يتم البت في النزاع المتعلق بتسمية مقدونيا. ومن أجل دعم بعضهم البعض في هذه العملية، شكل الأعضاء الجدد والمحتملون في المنطقة الميثاق الأدرياتيكي في عام 2003. وقد دعيت جورجيا أيضا بوصفها عضوا طموحا، ووعدت "بالعضوية في المستقبل" خلال مؤتمر القمة 2008 في بوخارست، على الرغم من ذلك فان الرئيس الأمريكي باراك أوباما في 2014 قال أن البلاد "حاليا ليست على طريق الحصول" على العضوية.

وتواصل روسيا معارضتها لمزيد من التوسع، وتعتبره غير متسق مع التفاهمات والإتفاقات، بين الزعيم السوفيتي ميخائيل غورباتشوف والمفاوضين الأوروبيين والأمريكيين، هذه الإتفاقات التي سمحت باعادة توحيد ألمانيا سلميا. وكثيرًا ما ينظر زعماء موسكو إلى جهود التوسع التي يبذلها الناتو باعتبارها استمرارا لمحاولة الحرب الباردة لتطويق روسيا وعزلها. وقد توصل إستطلاع للرأي أجري في يونيو 2016 إلى أن 68% من الروس يعتقدون إن نشر قوات الناتو في دول البلطيق وبولندا – دول الكتلة الشرقية السابقة المجاورة لروسيا – يشكل تهديدا لروسيا. وكانت علاقة أوكرانيا مع منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي وأوروبا مثيرة للانقسام السياسي، وساهمت في احتجاجات "الميدان الأوروبي" التي شهدت الاطاحة بالرئيس الموالي لروسيا فيكتور يانوكوفيتش في 2014. وفي آذار/مارس 2014، أكد رئيس الوزراء ارسيني ياتسينيوك مجددا موقف الحكومة الذي يؤكد إن أوكرانيا لا تبحث عن عضوية في الناتو. وفي وقت لاحق، وقع رئيس أوكرانيا مشروع قانون يسقط وضع "عدم الانحياز" لمتابعة عضوية الناتو، ولكنه أشار إلى انه سيجري استفتاء قبل السعي للانضمام للحلف. أوكرانيا هي واحدة من ثمانية بلدان في أوروبا الشرقية ضمن خطة عمل الشراكة الفردية. بدأت الوكالة في 2002، وهي مفتوحة امام البلدان التي لديها الارادة السياسية والقدرة على تعميق علاقتها مع منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي.

الشراكات
أنشئ برنامج الشراكة من أجل السلام في عام 1994، و يهدف إلى خلق الثقة بين الناتو ودول أخرى في أوروبا وجمهوريات الاتحاد السوفيتي السابق. وأنشئ مجلس الشراكة الأوروبية الأطلسية لأول مرة في 29 أيار/مايو 1997، وهو منتدى للتنسيق والتشاور والحوار المنتظم بين جميع المشاركين الخمسون.

ووقع الاتحاد الأوروبي مجموعة شاملة من الترتيبات مع منظمة حلف شمال الأطلسي بموجب اتفاق برلين بلاس في 16 كانون الأول/ديسمبر 2002. وبهذا الاتفاق، منح الاتحاد الأوروبي إمكانية استخدام ممتلكات الناتو في حالة رغبته في التصرف بصورة مستقلة في أزمة دولية، في حال إن الحلف نفسه رفض التصرف، ما يسمي ب "الحق في الرفض الأول". فعلى سبيل المثال، تنص المادة 42 (7) من معاهدة لشبونة لعام 1982 على إنه "إذا كانت الدولة العضو ضحية للعدوان المسلح على أراضيها، يكون على الدول الأعضاء الأخرى الإلتزام بتقديم العون والمساعدة بكل الوسائل التي في وسعها". وتنطبق المعاهدة عالميا على أقاليم محددة، في حين إن المادة 6 من الاتفاقية تقيد الناتو بالعمليات التي تقع شمال مدار السرطان.

بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تتعاون المنظمة وتناقش أنشطتها مع العديد من الأعضاء الآخرين من خارج الحلف. وقد أنشئ الحوار المتوسطي في عام 1994 للتنسيق مع إسرائيل والبلدان في شمال أفريقيا. وأُعلِنَت مبادرة إسطنبول للتعاون في 2004 بوصفها منتدى للحوار في الشرق الأوسط على غرار الحوار المتوسطي. بالإضافة إلى مجلس التعاون لدول الخليج العربي.

البنية
يقع المقر الرئيسي للناتو في هارن، وهي جزء من بلدية مدينة بروكسل. وقد بدأ تشييد مبنى مقر جديد بقيمة 750 مليون يورو في 2010، وانتهى في صيف عام 2016. وقد تم تصميم مجمع بمساحة تبلغ 250,000 متر مربع بواسطة جو بالما يتسع إلى 3800 فرد. نشأت المشاكل في المبنى الأصلي في 1967، عندما اضطر الحلف إلى نقل مقره من بورت دوفين في باريس، فرنسا عقب الانسحاب الفرنسي. ويتألف موظفو المقر من وفود وطنية من البلدان الأعضاء، ويشملون مكاتب الاتصال المدنية والعسكرية والموظفين أو البعثات الدبلوماسية والدبلوماسيين من البلدان الشريكة، فضلا عن الموظفين الدوليين والموظفين العسكريين الدوليين من الافراد العاملين في القوات المسلحة للدول الأعضاء.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO /ˈneɪtoʊ/; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949.[3][4] NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.

Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 29. The most recent member state to be added to NATO is Montenegro on 5 June 2017. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, North Macedonia and Ukraine as aspiring members.[5] An additional 21 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total.[6] Members have expressed their aim to move towards the target defence spending of 2% of GDP by 2024
On 4 March 1947 the Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom as a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance in the event of a possible attack by Germany or the Soviet Union in the aftermath of World War II. In 1948, this alliance was expanded to include the Benelux countries, in the form of the Western Union, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organization (BTO), established by the Treaty of Brussels.[9] Talks for a new military alliance which could also include North America resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland
The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it, by means of an integrated military structure: This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted the Western Union's military structures and plans.[11] In 1952 the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO maritime exercises, Exercise Mainbrace and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization.[12][13] Following the London and Paris Conferences, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was in turn a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.

Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966.[14][15] In 1982 the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.

The collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989–1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991.[16] At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent.[17] NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 during the breakup of Yugoslavia.[19] Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, most of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks,[20] after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations[21] and in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times following incidents in the Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, and annexation of Crimea.[22]

The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.[15][23][24]

Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. Between 1999 and 2017 NATO incorporated the following Central and Eastern European countries, including several former communist states: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia and Montenegro.[18]

The Russian intervention in Crimea in 2014 led to strong condemnation by NATO nations and the creation of a new "spearhead" force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.[25] At the subsequent 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least 2% of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline.[26] NATO did not condemn the 2016–present purges in Turkey.[27] NATO members have resisted the UN's Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.[28]

Military operations
Main article: List of NATO operations
Early operations
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area.[29]

Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, ordering a no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone.[30]

On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction.[31] In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April.[32][33] On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces.[34]

In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre.[35] Further NATO air strikes helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995.[35] As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea.[36] Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.[37]

Kosovo intervention
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević's Serbian-led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO,[38] which started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999.[39] Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.[40]

Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence.[40][41] In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia.[42] As of 1 December 2013, 4,882 KFOR soldiers, representing 31 countries, continue to operate in the area.[43]

The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval.[44] The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.[45]

War in Afghanistan
The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history. The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty.[46] The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001.[47]

The alliance showed unity: On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan,[49] and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.[50]

On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition.[51] Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts.[52] During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014.[53] ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training Resolute Support Mission.[54]

Iraq training mission
In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF-I.[55] The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.[56]

Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria,[57] and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity.[58]

Gulf of Aden anti-piracy
Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. Russia, China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well.[59][60] The operation seeks to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and abetting to increase the general level of security in the region.[61]

Libya intervention
During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protestors and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on 19 March.

On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1,[62] and additional ships and submarines from NATO members.[63] They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries"
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces.[64][65] NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.[66] By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations,[67] resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict.[68][69][70] In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO.[71] The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.[72]

While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August.[73] Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs.[74][75] The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable.[76] By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets.[77][78] A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign.[79] Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues

ماركو فان باستن

ماركو فان باستن (بالهولندية: Marcel "Marco" van Basten)، (مواليد 31 أكتوبر 1964) هو لاعب كرة قدم هولندي سابق، ومدرب كرة قدم حالي. يعد أحد أفضل الهدافين في العالم، ويعتبر صاحب أفضل لمسة أخيرة في العالم، وقد حاز على جائزة الكرة الذهبية ثلاث مرات في أعوام 1988، 1989 و1992
مسيرته الكروية
أياكس أمستردام
بدأ فان باستن مسيرته الكروية مع نادي أياكس أمستردام، وقد لعب أول مباراة له في أبريل 1982 وقد سجل هدف في المباراة التي فاز فيها أياكس 5–0، وقد أدخل في تلك المباراة كبديل لنجم الكرة الهولندية يوهان كرويف. ومع توالي السنين استطاع فان باستن أن يحسن من مهارته التهديفية، ومقدرته على السيطرة على الكرة، وقد لعب لنادي أياكس الهولندي 133 مباراة استطاع أن يسجل فيها 128 هدف.

إيه سي ميلان
مستواه البارز مع نادي أياكس، لفت أنظار كبار الأندية الأوربية، لكن نادي ميلان الإيطالي الذي استطاع أن يظفر به بعد منافسة حادة مع ريال مدريد وبرشلونة، وفي كأس أوروبا 1988 أظهر فان باستن مهاره عالية في تسجيلة هدف الفوز على منتخب الإتحاد السوفييتي، ويعتبر هذا الهدف من أروع الأهداف في القرن الماضي. وقد تألق في ميلان، حيث لعب معهم 202 مباراة وسجل فيها 125هدف، ولكن الإصابة منعته من استمراره في عالم كرة القدم.

مسيرته التدريبية
بداياته
بعد أن ترك نادي ميلان في عام 1995، قرر فان باستن أنه لن يكون مدرب أبدا، ولكن في موسم 2003–04 غير رأيه، وأصبح مساعد مدرب نادي أياكس الرديف.

المنتخب الهولندي
وفي 29 يوليو 2004 اختير فان باستن ليكون مدربا لمنتخب هولندا، وفي بداية قيادته للمنتخب، استبعد فان باستن العديد من النجوم من المنتخب مثل كلارنس سيدورف وباتريك كلويفرت وإدغار ديفيدز وروي مكاي، مفضلا الاعتماد على العناصر الشابة، وقد أراد أن يضم دينيس بيركامب إلى صفوف المنتخب، ولكن الأخير رفض ذلك، وفي كأس العالم 2006 خرج المنتخب الهولندي من الدور الثاني بعد أن خسر على يد منتخب البرتغال، وقد جدد الاتحاد الهولندي لكرة القدم عقد حتى عام 2008.

أياكس أمستردام
عين فان باستن مدرباً لنادي أياكس مباشرة بعد إنتهاء بطولة أمم أوروبا 2008، لكنه استقال عن منصبه في تأهيل الفريق للمشاركة في دوري أبطال أوروبا، على الرغم من تعاقد أياكس مع العديد من اللاعبين، أمثال ميراليم سوليماني، إسماعيل العيساتي، إيونغ إنوه، داريو سفيتانيتش وكلاس يان هونتيلار.

هيرينفين
في بداية عام 2012، أعلن نادي نادي هيرينفين عن تعيينه لفان باستن مدرباً للفريق في الموسم الذي يليه وهو موسم 2012–13، واحتل المركز الثامن.

إي زد ألكمار
تعاقد نادي إي زد ألكمار مع فان باستن ليحل بديلاً للمدرب ديك أدفوكات في تدريب الفريق، وسيبدأ العمل معهم في بداية موسم 2014–15 من الدوري الهولندي الممتاز.

Marco van Basten

Marcel "Marco" van Basten[2] (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈmɑrkoː vɑn ˈbɑstə(n)] (About this soundlisten); born 31 October 1964) is a Dutch football manager and former professional football player, who played for Ajax and A.C. Milan, as well as the Netherlands national team, as a striker. He is regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport. He scored 300 goals in a high-profile career, but played his last match in 1993 at age 28 due to an injury which forced his retirement two years later.[2] He was later the head coach of Ajax and the Netherlands national team.

Playing for the Netherlands, Van Basten won UEFA Euro 1988 where he was named player of the tournament, scoring five goals that included a memorable volley in the final against the Soviet Union.[2][3] At club level, he won three Eredivisie titles and the Cup Winners' Cup with Ajax, and three Serie A titles and two European Cups with Milan

Known for his close ball control, attacking intelligence, impeccable headers, and spectacular strikes and volleys, Van Basten was named FIFA World Player of the Year in 1992 and won the Ballon d'Or three times, in 1988, 1989 and 1992.[2] In 1998, he was ranked sixth in the FIFA Player of the Century internet poll, tenth in the European player of the Century election held by the IFFHS and 12th in the IFFHS' World Player of the Century election.[4][5] He was also voted eighth in a poll organised by the French magazine France Football, consulting their former Ballon d'Or winners to elect the Football Player of the Century.[6] In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players.[7] In 2004, a poll for the 100 greatest Dutch people was held in the Netherlands: Van Basten ranked number 25, the second highest for a football player, behind Johan Cruyff. In 2007, Sky Sports ranked Van Basten first on its list of great athletes who had their careers cut short
Early years
Marco van Basten was born on 31 October 1964 in Utrecht. He began playing for a local team, EDO, when he was six years old. A year later, he moved to UVV Utrecht. After nine years there, he briefly played for another club from Utrecht, Elinkwijk.

Ajax
Ajax signed 16 year old Van Basten for the 1981–82 season after his 20 year old brother Stanley was rejected. He played his first match for Ajax in April 1982, scoring a debut goal in the 5–0 victory over NEC.

In the 1982–83 season, he competed with the European top scorer and first choice Holland international Wim Kieft for the position of centre forward, and scored nine goals in 20 league matches. After Kieft left for Italian Serie A club Pisa the following season, the 18 year old Van Basten solidified his position as his team's main attacker.

He was the top scorer in the league for four consecutive seasons, from 1983–84 to 1986–87, scoring 118 goals in 112 matches. In the 1985–86 season, he scored 37 goals in 26 league matches, including six goals against Sparta Rotterdam and five against Heracles Almelo, and won the European Golden Boot. He also scored the winning goal in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup final against Lokomotive Leipzig in 1987. In total he scored 128 goals in 133 league matches for Ajax.[2] On November 1986 he scored his most famous goal in an Ajax jersey, a spectacular overhead kick against FC Den Bosch.[9]

A.C. Milan
In 1987, A.C. Milan president Silvio Berlusconi signed Van Basten, with fellow countrymen Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard joining the club in 1988. In his first season, Milan won their first Scudetto in eight years, but Van Basten played only 11 matches and was constantly troubled by an ankle injury.[2][10] In 1988–89, Van Basten won the Ballon d'Or as Europe's top footballer.[2] He scored 19 goals in Serie A and 32 goals in all competitions that year, including two goals in the final of the European Cup, as Milan triumphed against Steaua București.[2] In 1989–90, he became Capocannoniere again (Serie A's leading goal scorer); Milan also successfully defended the European Cup after beating Benfica 1–0 in the final match,[2] during which Van Basten provided the assist for Rijkaard's match-winning goal.[11]

Milan struggled in the 1990–91 season, as Sampdoria won the Scudetto. After Van Basten fell out with Arrigo Sacchi, Berlusconi sacked the manager. Fabio Capello took over the following season, and Milan went undefeated in the league to win another Scudetto. Van Basten scored 25 league goals, and became Capocannoniere again;[2] his tally from the 1991–92 season was the highest number a goals that a player had scored in a single Serie A season since Luís Vinício achieved the same tally during the 1965–66 season
In November 1992, he became the first player to score four goals in a Champions League match, against IFK Göteborg, including a picture perfect bicycle kick.[2] In December 1992, Van Basten was named FIFA World Player of the Year.[2] Milan stretched their unbeaten run into the 1992–93 season, going 58 matches over two seasons before they lost a match.[2] Van Basten was exceptional in the early part of the season. He was again voted the European player of the year, becoming the third player after Johan Cruyff and Michel Platini to win the award three times.[2]

His troublesome ankle injury[14] recurred in a game against Ancona, forcing him to endure another six months layoff, and undergo a series of surgeries. He returned for the last few matches in the season, before Milan lost 1–0 to Marseille in the Champions League final. The match was Van Basten's final match for the Italian club.[2] He came off in the 86th minute for Stefano Eranio, after a hard tackle behind from Basile Boli condemned Van Basten to the third ankle surgery of his career.[15]

Van Basten had been hopeful of playing for his country at the 1994 World Cup as well as for his club in the 1994–95 season after spending the whole 1993–94 season out of action (missing Milan's victory in the European Cup as well as their Serie A title glory),[16] but his club ordered him not to take part in the World Cup amid fear of ruining his rehabilitation.[17] He finally conceded defeat in his battle to recover on 17 August 1995, when he announced his retirement as a player after two whole years on sidelines. Van Basten made a farewell appearance to thank the Milan fans before a home game at the San Siro, with an emotional Milan coach Fabio Capello breaking down in tears.[18]

International career
Van Basten's talent was already noticed at a young age and he was called up for the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship. He made his senior debut for the Netherlands national team that same year. At UEFA Euro 1988, Van Basten played a pivotal role in the victorious Dutch team. He scored a total of five goals, including a hat trick against England, the winning goal in the semi-final against West Germany,[19] and a spectacular volley from an acute angle in the 2–0 final against the Soviet Union,[20] during which he also provided the assist for Gullit's opening goal.[21] He finished the competition as the top scorer and was named player of the tournament.[2] In a 2002 UK poll Van Basten's volley against the Soviet Union was ranked #21 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.[22]

The Dutch national team exited the 1990 World Cup early, losing to West Germany in the second round. Van Basten never scored in the World Cup finals. At UEFA Euro 1992, the Netherlands defeated reigning World Champions Germany 3–1 in the first round to top their group and reach the semi-finals, where they shockingly lost to the eventual champions Denmark in a penalty shootout, with Peter Schmeichel saving a penalty shot from Van Basten.[2] Van Basten was named to the European Championship team of the tournament for a second time in 1992.[23]

After retirement
Van Basten played in the Demetrio Albertini testimonial match at the San Siro in March 2006, and headed in a goal before being substituted early in the first half. On 22 July 2006, he also returned for the testimonial match to celebrate the 11-year Arsenal career of Dennis Bergkamp, in what was the first match played at the new Emirates Stadium. He played in the second half for the Ajax legends team. He entered the match as part of a double substitution that also introduced Johan Cruyff. He took part in Tyskie's (a Polish beer company) advertising campaign with Luís Figo and Zbigniew Boniek.

Player profile
Style of play
Regarded as one of the greatest and most complete strikers and players in the history of the sport, due to his prolific goalscoring and great skill set, Van Basten was dubbed the "Swan Of Utrecht" for his elegance and intelligent attacking play, and was known for his penchant for scoring acrobatic goals.[2][24][25][26] His height and strength allowed him to excel in the air, and his technical ability and agility saw him execute spectacular strikes throughout his career, such as volleys and bicycle kicks.[24][25][27][28] A fast and opportunistic striker with quick reactions and excellent movement, he often took advantage of loose balls in the penalty area due to his ability to anticipate defenders, and was capable of both controlling fast and difficult balls well with one touch, or even shooting first time.[25][28][29][30] Possessing a powerful and accurate shot, and clinical, varied finishing from anywhere along the pitch, he was capable of scoring goals with either foot from inside or outside the penalty area, as well as with his head; he was also an accurate penalty kick and free-kick taker.[26][27][31] Throughout his career, Van Basten converted 51 penalties out of the 54 he took, with a 94.44% success rate, the third highest in history, behind only Matthew Le Tissier and Cuauhtémoc Blanco.[32] Before taking penalties, Van Basten often used to perform a characteristic hop.[33]

Although he was mainly known as a traditional attacker who operated in the penalty area as a centre-forward throughout his career,[25][26] Van Basten also possessed excellent vision and distribution, in addition to his goalscoring ability, which enabled him to play in deeper, more creative positions, as a second striker, for example, and which allowed him to participate in the build-up of attacking plays and provide assists to his teammates in addition to scoring goals himself;[31][34][35][36][37][38] one of his most notable assists was the one he provided to Frank Rijkaard for Milan's winning goal in the 1990 European Cup final against Benfica.[11] Despite his large stature, Van Basten possessed excellent technical skills and ball control, as well as good balance and a notable elegance on the ball, which inspired his nickname.[24] As such, his strong physique, combined with his close control, also enabled him to hold up the ball for teammates when playing with his back to goal.[25]

Despite his ability, Van Basten's career was severely affected by many grave injuries, which eventually forced him to retire from football prematurely at the age of 28.[24][29] Lack of protection from referees and inadequate football rules against rugged defending and tackles from behind were identified as the source of the injuries which ultimately led to his career's demise; consequently, Van Basten's early retirement due to his injuries led to widespread debate in the football world over whether rash challenges from behind should be rendered illegal in football, in order to protect talented players more effectively.[39][40] During the 1994 World Cup, an automatic red was also shown for tackles from behind or with studs showing.[41] In 1998, prior to the World Cup that year, FIFA completely outlawed the tackle from behind;[42] this ruling came to be known colloquially as the "Van Basten law" in the media.[43] Although Van Basten was known for often being on the receiving end of hard challenges from his opponents throughout his career, former referee Daniele Tombolini described Van Basten as a player who was known for his physical play himself, and who utilised his strength and committed a lot of fouls during matches.[44]

Reception and legacy
Considered by pundits to be one of the greatest and most complete players of all time,[45] in 1998, Van Basten was ranked sixth in the FIFA Player of the Century internet poll, tenth in the European player of the Century election held by the IFFHS, and 12th in the IFFHS' World Player of the Century election.[4][5] He was also ranked eighth in a poll to determine France Football 's "Football Player of the Century."[6] In 1999, Van Basten was named the ninth greatest player of the twentieth Century by World Soccer magazine.[46] In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100, his list of the world's 125 greatest living players,[7] and also placed fourth in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll, celebrating the best European footballers of the past fifty years.[47] He was also ranked 25th in a poll for the 100 greatest Dutch people. In 2007, Sky Sports ranked Van Basten first on its list of great athletes who had their careers cut short.[8] In 2016 Van Basten was included in UEFA's All-time Euro XI,[48] while in 2017, he was named the 13th greatest player of all time by FourFourTwo magazine.[26]

"It is between Romário and Van Basten."
— Diego Maradona on who was the best player he ever saw.[49]
Numerous players, managers, and other footballing figures have also lauded Van Basten as one of the greatest players of all time. Giuseppe Bergomi described Van Basten as the strongest player he ever faced in 2018, commenting: "The best player of all time for me [...] is Maradona, but the strongest player I ever faced was Van Basten because at least I could beat Maradona to the ball with my head."[50][51] In 2019, Van Basten's former Milan coach Fabio Capello described Van Basten and Ronaldo as the best players he ever coached.[52] His predecessor at Milan, Arrigo Sacchi, described Van Basten as the best striker of all time in 2014, commenting: "Marco van Basten remains for me the best striker of all time. No other forward has worked as hard for the team as Marco did at Milan. I above all remember him for his elegance, his grace and his incredible quality. I remember well when he first arrived at Milan: he was very young with great talent. It was a big change for him and Ruud Gullit to come to Italy from Holland. Marco was very enthusiastic, but unfortunately played very little in the first season due to an ankle injury. In successive years he won the Ballon d’Or three times [sic] and I am still so proud of him for that. Van Basten had a big influence on my first Milan adventure thanks to his goals."[53] When Hernan Crespo was asked in 2015 who was the greatest centre-forward of all time, he echoed Sacchi's views, responding: "Marco van Basten. He did everything: dribbling, shooting, headers, acrobatics. And he played with his team and for his team."[54] In 2019, Antonio Cassano described Van Basten and Ronaldo as the best forwards in the history of the game.[55] In 2017, Van Basten's former Milan teammate, Demetrio Albertini described the Dutchman with the following words "The best player I have ever played with is Van Basten, the best overall. He had elegance and strength. He stopped playing at only 28 years of age, which is truly young."[56] Another former Milan teammate of Van Basten, Giovanni Cornacchini, described the Dutch striker as the greatest player of all time in 2019.[57] Former Milan Vice-Chairman and CEO Adriano Galliani instead described Van Basten as Milan's greatest player ever in 2018.[58]

Media and sponsorship
Van Basten features in EA Sports' FIFA video game series, and was named in the Ultimate Team Legends in FIFA 14.[59] Throughout his playing career, Van Basten was sponsored by Italian sportswear company Diadora. One of the most marketable players in the world, in the late 1980s Diadora launched his own personalized football boots, the San Siro Van Basten, earning him two million dollars over 5 years.[60]

Managing career
Ajax B
Van Basten officially left Milan in 1995 and retired from football, stating he would never try management. However, he changed his mind and took a course with the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB). His first stint as a manager was as an assistant to his former teammate John van 't Schip with the second team of Ajax in 2003–04.

Netherlands
On 29 July 2004, Van Basten was named the new manager of the Netherlands national team, with Van 't Schip as his assistant.[61] Van Basten’s appointment as manager of the Netherlands sparked a little controversy at the time, since he only just started his managerial career and the media argued that he did not have a lot of experience yet
As a manager, he soon established himself as a man of strong principles. Van Basten famously dropped regulars like Clarence Seedorf, Patrick Kluivert, Edgar Davids and Roy Makaay and benched Mark van Bommel, because he believed that they were either past their prime or constantly underachieving. There were also calls for Van Basten to call up Dennis Bergkamp, who had retired from the national team six years earlier, for a final "hurrah," as he was retiring that season. Van Basten then revealed to the media that he never intended to do so, despite Bergkamp's own willingness.

For probably the first time in decades, none of the "Big Three" Clubs (Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord) provided the backbone for the national team. Instead, newcomer AZ led the way with players such as Denny Landzaat, Barry Opdam, Barry van Galen, Ron Vlaar, Jan Kromkamp and Joris Mathijsen. AZ, at the time a local small football club for Dutch standards, proved to be successful in the Dutch league and in the UEFA Cup. Other unheralded choices were Khalid Boulahrouz, Hedwiges Maduro, Ryan Babel and Romeo Castelen. Van Basten had also wanted to include Ivorian forward Salomon Kalou, but was thwarted when Kalou was denied Dutch citizenship by the immigration authorities headed by Dutch Minister of Integration Rita Verdonk. Kalou eventually accepted a call-up to play for Ivory Coast.

Under his guidance, the team were unbeaten in their World Cup qualification group and made it through the group stages at the 2006 World Cup, but were eliminated in a frenzied 1–0 loss to Portugal in the Round of 16. Van Basten was heavily criticised for dropping Ruud van Nistelrooy before this match, in favour of Dirk Kuyt, who did not score throughout the entire tournament.
In November 2006, Van Basten recalled exiled Milan midfielder Clarence Seedorf for a friendly against England at the Amsterdam Arena. In May 2007, Van Basten announced the end of his long-running dispute with Ruud van Nistelrooy, who had previously declared never to play for a Dutch national squad with Van Basten as its manager.[62] Other players, such as Roy Makaay, Mark van Bommel, Boudewijn Zenden and Edgar Davids, however, remained out of favour.

Van Basten had a contract with the KNVB for managing the Dutch national side until 2008. The KNVB had expressed its wishes to extend his contract to include the World Cup qualification route to 2010 World Cup in South Africa. On 22 February 2008, Van Basten signed a four-year contract with Ajax, starting from 1 July.[63] His last tournament thus was the UEFA Euro 2008, where the Netherlands surprised with a strong first round performance. They beat world champions Italy 3–0 in their first match,[64] followed by a 4–1 win over World Cup runners-up France.[65] In their third match, having already qualified for the next round, Van Basten selected non-regulars such as Maarten Stekelenburg, Wilfred Bouma and Ibrahim Afellay for the starting lineup against Romania, a match the Oranje won 2–0.[66] In the quarter-finals, Van Basten faced fellow Dutchman Guus Hiddink's Russia. With the score at 1–1 after 90 minutes, Hiddink and Russia went on to win the match 3–1 in extra-time.[67] He finished his reign with a record of 35 wins, 11 draws and six losses in 52 matches.[68]

Return to Ajax
Van Basten became manager of Ajax after Euro 2008 but resigned on 6 May 2009 after his team failed to qualify for the Champions League.[69] Van Basten started the season well, having spent millions on players such as Miralem Sulejmani, Ismaïl Aissati, Darío Cvitanich, Evander Sno, Eyong Enoh and Oleguer. However, in the second half of the season, striker Klaas-Jan Huntelaar left for Real Madrid, and Van Basten started switching around his lineups. When Ajax lost 11 points in four matches, the Eredivisie title was out of sight. However, Ajax still had the chance to finish in second place, which would have ensured a place in the third qualifying round of the Champions League. Two important losses against PSV (6–2) and Sparta Rotterdam (4–0), however, ensured that Van Basten's Ajax could only finish third in the league. Van Basten decided to resign as Ajax manager at the end of the 2008–09 season. Van Basten subsequently became a pundit for Sport1, but was still planning to return as a manager. He finished his reign with a record of 26 wins, 8 draws and 11 losses in 45 matches.[68]

Heerenveen
On 13 February 2012, it was announced that Van Basten would become the manager of Eredivisie club Heerenveen in the 2012–13 season.[70] Van Basten led Heerenveen to an eighth-place finish in the 2012–13 year campaign. He then led them to a fifth-place finish the following season, during the 2013–14 campaign. He finished his reign with a record of 27 wins, 18 draws and 27 losses in 72 matches.[68]

AZ
AZ Alkmaar announced on 18 April 2014 that Van Basten would replace Dick Advocaat at the start of the 2014–15 season.[71] On 28 August 2014, Van Basten took a leave of absence for the following match against Dordrecht, with multiple Dutch news outlets reporting he was suffering of stress-related heart palpitations, and was replaced by assistant coaches Alex Pastoor and Dennis Haar.[72][73][74] Later, on 3 September, AZ confirmed that Van Basten was given an extended leave of absence until 14 September.[73][74] On 16 September 2014, parties agreed Van Basten would relinquish his role as manager in order to sign a new contract as assistant coach until 2016; this was motivated by Van Basten himself, who stated the stress caused by his full-time role as head coach was causing him physical and mental issues.[75] He finished his stint with two wins and three losses in five matches.[68]

FIFA technical director
After a year at AZ, Van Basten decided to take up the vacant post of assistant coach under the new head coach of the Netherlands national team, Danny Blind.[76] Van Basten would work together with fellow assistant coach Ruud van Nistelrooy, whom Van Basten had initially sent away when he was head coach of the Netherlands. In August 2016, Van Basten announced he would be leaving the role to take up a position at FIFA as technical director.[76]

In March 2018 Van Basten travelled to Iran with FIFA President Gianni Infantino to mark 100 years of the Iran Football Federation. After meeting Iranian President Hassan Rouhani they were welcomed by the president of Iranian Football Federation Mehdi Taj at the Tehran Olympic Hotel. Attending the Tehran derby, Van Basten called for the ban on women entering sports venues to be lifted.[77]

Nazi verbal salute controversy
On 23 November 2019, while Van Basten was working as an analyst for the Dutch edition of the Fox Sports network, he was heard saying "Sieg Heil" (literally "Hail victory!" in German) on a live television broadcast, a verbal salute which the Nazis used to signal allegiance to dictator Adolf Hitler. Van Basten reportedly stated that he thought his microphone was off when he uttered those words, after his colleague Hans Kraay had interviewed Heracles's German manager, Frank Wormuth, following the team's 4–1 loss to Ajax. Van Basten later apologised, stating: "It wasn't my intention to shock people, I apologise. I just wanted to make a comment about Hans' German. It was an ill-placed joke." Van Basten's use of the salute attracted further controversy as it occurred on a weekend during which Dutch football clubs were attempting to emphasise the importance of fighting racism by observing a minute of silence prior to matches.[78][79][80] Following the incident, the network described Van Basten's comment as "stupid and inappropriate," and suspended him until 7 December

Crystal Palace

Crystal Palace Football Club is an English professional football club based in Selhurst, South London, that competes in the Premier League, the highest level of English football. They were founded in 1905 at the famous Crystal Palace Exhibition building and played their home games at the FA Cup Final stadium, which was situated inside the historic Palace grounds. The club were forced to leave the Palace in 1915 due to the outbreak of the First World War, and played at Herne Hill Velodrome and the Nest until 1924, when they moved to their current home at Selhurst Park.

Palace joined the Football League in 1920, and have overall spent the majority of their time competing in the top two tiers of English football. Since 1964, they have only dropped below the second tier once, for three seasons between 1974 and 1977. Palace enjoyed a successful period in the top flight in the late 1980s and early 1990s, during which they achieved their highest ever league finish in 1990–91 of third place in the old First Division, now known as the Premier League. The club were denied a place in Europe at the end of that season because of the partial UEFA ban on English clubs at that time following the Heysel Stadium disaster. Palace became one of the original founding members of the Premier League. It was also during this period that Palace reached the 1990 FA Cup Final finishing runners-up to Manchester United after a replay. Palace set two unwanted Premier League records for relegation, in 1992–93 they were relegated on 49 points, which is still a record number of points for a relegated Premier League club and are also the only club ever to be relegated from the Premier League when finishing fourth from bottom in 1994–95, as it had been decided that the league would be reduced from 22 to 20 clubs for the following season. The club suffered severe financial problems towards the end of the 1990s and into the 2000s and went into administration twice, in 1999 and 2010. Palace recovered and gained promotion back to the Premier League in 2012–13 where they have remained ever since, and reached another FA Cup final in 2016.

The club's traditional kit colours were originally claret and blue, but in 1973 they decided to change to the red and blue vertical stripes now worn today. Palace have a fierce rivalry with Brighton & Hove Albion, with whom they contest the M23 derby and also share rivalries with fellow South London clubs Millwall and Charlton Athletic.
Historic origins: The famous Exhibition Palace and playing at the FA Cup Final venue (1854–1920)
In 1854, the famous Crystal Palace Exhibition building had been relocated from Hyde Park, London and rebuilt in an area of South London next to Sydenham Hill. This area was renamed Crystal Palace which included the Crystal Palace park that surrounded the site where various sports facilities were built. The original Crystal Palace team were an amateur outfit who first played here as early as 1861.[4] They competed in the very first FA Cup competition in 1871–72, losing in the semi finals to the Royal Engineers before disappearing from historical records after a 0–3 defeat to Wanderers in the second round of the 1875–76 FA Cup. In 1895, the Football Association found a new permanent venue for the FA Cup Final at the sports stadium situated inside the historic Palace grounds. Some years later the owners, who were reliant on tourist activity for their income, sought fresh attractions for the venue, and decided to form their own professional football team to play at the stadium. The owners wanted a club to play there and tap into the vast crowd potential of the area. Although the Football Association disliked the idea of the owners of the Cup Final venue also possessing their own football team and initially rejected their proposal, a separate company was established to form and own the club.[5]

Crystal Palace Football Club, originally nicknamed "The Glaziers", were founded on 10 September 1905 under the guidance of Aston Villa assistant secretary Edmund Goodman.[6] The club applied to enter the Football League alongside another newly formed London club Chelsea. Unfortunately for Palace, it was Chelsea that were accepted and the club found itself in the Southern League Second Division for the 1905–06 season. The club was successful in its inaugural season and were promoted to the First Division, crowned as champions.[6] Palace also played in the mid-week United Counties League, finishing runners-up to Watford, and it was in this competition that the club played their first match, winning 3–0 away to New Brompton.[6][7]

Palace remained in the Southern League up until 1914, their one highlight the 1907 shock First Round victory over Newcastle United in the FA Cup.[8][9] The outbreak of the First World War led to the Admiralty requisitioning the Crystal Palace and its grounds, which meant the club was forced to leave and they moved to the home of West Norwood F.C. at Herne Hill Velodrome.[6] Three years later they moved again to the Nest due to the folding of Croydon Common F.C..

Into the Football League: Early success and Wartime champions (1920–58)
The club became founder members of the new Football League Third Division in the 1920–21 season, finishing as champions and gaining promotion to the Second Division. This achievement meant they joined Preston North End, Small Heath, Liverpool and Bury as the only clubs to win a championship in their first season as a league club. Palace then moved to the purpose-built stadium Selhurst Park in 1924, which is the ground the club still plays at today.[6][10]

The opening fixture at Selhurst Park was against Sheffield Wednesday, with Palace losing 0–1 in front of a crowd of 25,000. Finishing in twenty-first position, the club was relegated to the Third Division South. Before the Second World War Palace made good efforts at promotion, never finishing outside the top half of the table and finishing second on three occasions. During the war years, the Football League was suspended, and the club won two Wartime Leagues. After the war, Palace were less successful in the league, their highest position being seventh, and conversely on three occasions the club had to apply for re-election.

The Sixties: Historic Real Madrid visit and promotion to the top flight (1958–73)
The club remained in Division Three South until 1957–58 when the league was restructured which saw clubs in the bottom half of the table merge with those in the bottom half of Division Three North to form a new Fourth Division. Palace finished fourteenth – just below the cut – and found itself in the basement of English football. Their stay was only brief. Palace chairman Arthur Wait appointed the ex-Tottenham manager Arthur Rowe in April 1960, and his exciting style of football was a joy to watch for the Palace fans. The 1960–61 season saw Palace gain promotion and they also achieved distinction in 1962 when they played the great Real Madrid team of that era in an historic friendly match. This was the first time that the Spanish giants had ever played a match in London and was only two weeks before they were due to play Benfica in the European Cup final. A full strength Madrid team beat Palace 4–3. Although Rowe resigned due to health reasons towards the end of 1962, the promotion proved a turning point in the club's history. Dick Graham and then Bert Head guided the club to successive promotions in 1963–64 and 1968–69, taking the club through the Second Division and into the heights of the First Division.[12]

Palace stayed in the top flight from 1969 until 1973, and achieved some memorable results, arguably the best was a 5–0 home win against Manchester United in the 1972–73 season. Arthur Wait stepped down as chairman during that season and was replaced by Raymond Bloye who appointed Malcolm Allison as manager in March 1973, with Bert Head moving upstairs to become general manager. Unfortunately the managerial change came too late to save the club from relegation back to the Second Division.

Bouncing between the divisions (1973–84)
After the disappointment of relegation, worse was to follow for the club. Under the management of Allison, Palace were immediately relegated again finding itself back in Division Three for the 1974–75 season. It was also under Allison that the club changed its nickname from "The Glaziers" to "The Eagles", and ended its association with claret and blue kit colours by deciding to change to the red and blue vertical stripes worn today. Palace enjoyed a run to the semi-finals of the 1975-76 FA Cup, beating Leeds and Chelsea along the way. Allison resigned at the end of the 1975–76 campaign after failing to get the club out of the third tier, and it was under Terry Venables' management that Palace were promoted back to the top flight with successive promotions in 1976–77 and 1978–79; the latter saw the club crowned as Division Two champions.

That team from 1979 was dubbed "The Team of the Eighties", and were briefly top of the whole Football League in the early part of the 1979–80 season. However financial difficulties suffered by the club caused the break-up of that talented group of players, and this ultimately led to the club being unable to maintain its position in the top flight. Palace were relegated from the First Division in 1980–81, coinciding with Ron Noades' takeover of the club. They struggled back in the second tier, and Noades even appointed the ex-Brighton manager Alan Mullery, which was very unpopular with the Palace fans.

Steve Coppell years: FA Cup finalists and League title challengers (1984–93)
On 4 June 1984, former Manchester United and England player Steve Coppell who had recently retired from the game due to injury was appointed as manager, and it was under his stewardship and rebuilding that the club achieved promotion via the play-offs back to the First Division in 1988–89. Palace followed this up by reaching the 1990 FA Cup Final, drawing 3–3 with Manchester United in the first match but losing the replay 0–1. The club were able to build on this success and the 1990–91 season saw them achieve their highest ever league finish of third place in the top flight. Palace were to be denied a European place at the end of that season because of the partial UEFA ban on English clubs following the Heysel Stadium disaster. The club also returned to Wembley and won the Full Members Cup. Palace beat Everton 4–1 (after extra time) in the final.[6] During the following season star striker Ian Wright left the club to join Arsenal. Palace finished tenth, allowing the club to become a founding member of the FA Premier League in 1992–93
The club sold Mark Bright to Sheffield Wednesday, but failed to rebuild the squad adequately, and Palace struggled for consistency throughout the season. The club found itself relegated with a total of 49 points, which is still a Premier League record for the highest number of points for a relegated club. Coppell resigned and Alan Smith, his assistant at the club, took over.

The yo-yo years (1993–98)
Alan Smith's first season as manager saw the club win the First Division title and gain promotion back to the Premier League.[14] Their stay on this occasion proved eventful. On 25 January 1995, Palace played Manchester United at Selhurst Park in which Eric Cantona was sent off. He was taunted by Palace fan Matthew Simmons,[15] and retaliated with a flying kick.[16] Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in jail,[17] reduced to 120 hours community service on appeal. Simmons was immediately banned from Selhurst Park,[18] and found guilty on two charges of threatening Cantona.[19] More was to follow in March, when Chris Armstrong was suspended by the FA for failing a drugs test.[20] On the field, Smith guided the club to the semi-finals of both the FA Cup and the League Cup, but league form was inconsistent and Palace once again found themselves relegated, finishing fourth from bottom as the Premier League reduced from 22 to 20 clubs.[21]

Smith left the club and Steve Coppell returned as technical director in the summer of 1995, and through a combination of the first-team coaching of Ray Lewington and latterly Dave Bassett's managership Palace reached the play-offs. Palace lost the 1996 play-off final in dramatic fashion when Steve Claridge scored in the last minute of extra time for Leicester City to win the tie 2–1. The following season saw Coppell take charge as first-team manager when Dave Bassett departed for Nottingham Forest in early 1997[22] The club was successful in the play-offs at the second time of asking when they defeated Sheffield United in the final at Wembley.[23]

This stay in the Premier League was no more successful than the previous two, and in true yo-yo club fashion Palace were relegated back to the First Division at the end of the 1997–98 season. The club also had a new owner when recruitment tycoon Mark Goldberg completed his takeover in June 1998.[24]

In the doldrums: Two administrations (1998–2010)
Terry Venables returned to Palace for a second spell as manager and the club competed in European competition during the summer when they played in the UEFA Intertoto Cup. Palace then went into administration in 1999, when owner Mark Goldberg was unable to sustain his financial backing of the club.[25] Venables left and Steve Coppell took over again as manager. The club emerged from administration under the ownership of Simon Jordan, and Coppell was replaced as manager by Alan Smith for a second time. Palace were almost relegated in Jordan's first season, in 2000–01. Smith was sacked in April and long-serving coach Steve Kember took over as caretaker manager and managed to win the two remaining fixtures that would guarantee survival, Dougie Freedman scoring the winner in a 1–0 victory over Stockport County in the 87th minute on the final day of the season. Steve Bruce was appointed manager for the 2001–02 season.[26] A good start to the season gave Palace hope for a promotion challenge, but Bruce attempted to walk out on the club after just four months at the helm to take charge of Birmingham City.[27][28] After a short spell on 'gardening leave',[29] Bruce was eventually allowed to join Birmingham,[30] succeeded by Trevor Francis, who had ironically been his predecessor at the Midlands club.[31]

Under Francis, Palace finished mid-table for two successive seasons, but he then departed[32] to be replaced by Steve Kember.[33] Kember guided Palace to victories in their opening three games of the 2003–04 First Division campaign, which put the club at the top of the table, but he was sacked in November after a terrible loss of form saw the team slip towards the relegation zone.[34] Iain Dowie was appointed manager and guided the club to the play-offs, securing promotion with a 1–0 victory over West Ham. Again Palace could not maintain their place in the top tier and were relegated on the last day of the season after drawing at local rivals Charlton Athletic.
Following that relegation, Simon Jordan was unable to put the club on a sound financial footing in the next few years, and in January 2010 the club was once again placed in administration, this time by a creditor.[35] The Football League's regulations saw the Eagles deducted ten points,[36] and the administrators were forced to sell key players including Victor Moses and José Fonte. Neil Warnock had also departed as manager in the early part of 2010. He had taken over as manager in 2007, replacing Peter Taylor who had a brief spell as manager. Paul Hart took over as caretaker manager for the final weeks of the season. Survival in the Championship was only secured on the final day of the season after a memorable 2–2 draw at Sheffield Wednesday, which was itself relegated as a result.[37]

Established back in the Premier League (2010–present)
During the close season CPFC 2010, a consortium consisting of several wealthy fans successfully negotiated the purchase of the club. They were led by Steve Parish, the vocal representative for the consortium of four that also included Stephen Browett, Jeremy Hosking and Martin Long. Crucially, the consortium also secured the freehold of the ground, and paid tribute to a fans' campaign which helped pressure Lloyds Bank into selling the ground back to the club. The consortium swiftly installed George Burley as the new Palace manager.[38] However a poor start to the season saw the club hovering around the bottom of the table by December. On 1 January 2011, after a 0–3 defeat to Millwall, Burley was sacked and his assistant Dougie Freedman named caretaker manager. Freedman was appointed manager on a full-time basis on 11 January 2011.[39] Palace moved up the table and by securing a 1–1 draw at Hull City on 30 April, the club was safe from relegation with one game of the season left. After another year and a half as manager, Freedman departed to manage Bolton Wanderers on 23 October 2012.[40]

In November 2012, Ian Holloway became manager.[41] He guided Palace back to the Premier League after an eight-year absence by defeating Watford 1–0 in the Championship Play-off Final at the new Wembley, but resigned in October 2013.[42] Following a brief spell under Tony Pulis,[43] and an unsuccessful second tenure as manager for Neil Warnock, former Palace player Alan Pardew was confirmed as the new manager in January 2015.[44] In his first full season, Pardew led Palace to the 2016 FA Cup Final, their first for 26 years, losing 1–2 after extra time to Manchester United. In December 2016, Pardew was sacked and replaced by Sam Allardyce, who kept the club in the Premier League but resigned unexpectedly at the end of the season.[45] On 26 June 2017, Palace appointed their first permanent foreign manager in former Dutch international Frank de Boer, who was dismissed after only 77 days in charge, with the club having lost their first four league games at the start of the 2017–18 season.[46] His replacement, Roy Hodgson, was appointed the next day.[47]

Colours and crest
When Crystal Palace were founded in 1905, they turned to one of the biggest clubs in the country at the time, Aston Villa, to seek advice. Villa helped the club in a number of ways, not least by donating their kit.[48][49] As a result, Palace's colours were originally claret and blue shirts paired with white shorts, socks tending to be claret. They kept to this formula fairly consistently until 1938. The 1937–38 strip saw them try vertical stripes of claret and blue on the jersey rather than the claret body and blue sleeves, but in 1938 they decided to abandon the claret and blue and adopt white shirts and black shorts with matching socks. Although they returned to claret and blue from 1949 to 1954, the 1955 season saw them return to white and black, now using claret and blue as trim.[50]

There were variations on this theme until 1963 when the club adopted the away strip of yellow jersey as the home colours. In 1964 the club adopted an all-white strip modelled on Real Madrid whom the club had played recently in a friendly, before they returned to claret and blue jerseys with white shorts in 1966. The club continued with variations on this theme up until Malcolm Allison's arrival as manager in 1973.[50] Allison overhauled the club's image, adopting red and blue vertical stripes for colours and kit, inspired by FC Barcelona.[48] Palace have played in variations of red and blue ever since, bar the centenary season of 2005 which saw them deploy a version of their 1971–72 claret, blue and white kit.[50]

The club were relatively late in establishing a crest. Although the initials were embroidered onto the shirt from the 1935–36 season, a crest featuring the façade of The Crystal Palace did not appear until 1955. This crest disappeared from the shirt in 1964, and the team's name appeared embroidered on shirts in 1967–72. 1972 saw a round badge adopted with the club's initials and nickname "the Glaziers" before Allison changed this too.[50] The nickname became "the Eagles", inspired by Portuguese club Benfica, and the badge adopted an eagle holding a ball.[50] This emblem remained until 1987 when the club married the eagle with the Crystal Palace façade,[51] and although updated in 1996 and again in 2013, the crest retains these features.[50] Since mid-2010, the club has made use of an American bald eagle, called Kayla, as the club mascot, with the bird flying from one end of the stadium to the other at every home game.[52][53]

Kit manufacturers and sponsors
Since 2018, Crystal Palace's kit has been manufactured by Puma.[54] Previous manufacturers include Umbro (1975–77), Admiral (1977–80, 1987–88, 2003–04), Adidas (1980–83, 1996–99), Hummel (1984–87), Bukta (1988–92), Ribero (1992–94) Nutmeg (1994–96), TFG Sports (1999–2001) Le Coq Sportif (2001–03), Diadora (2004–07), Errea (2007–09), Nike (2009–12), Avec (2012–14), and Macron (2014–18).

The club's shirts are currently sponsored by ManBetX, and have previously been sponsored by Red Rose (1983–84), Top Score (1985–86), AVR (1986–87), Andrew Copeland (1987–88), Fly Virgin (1988–91), Tulip Computers (1991–93), TDK (1993–99), Churchill Insurance (2000–06), GAC Logistics (2006–14), Neteller (2014–15), and Mansion.com (2015–17)

The club signed its first sleeve sponsor with All Football, a Chinese football-based social media application, in 2017[55]

Stadium
In 1905, the Crystal Palace Company who owned the FA Cup Final venue situated inside the grounds of The Crystal Palace, wanted a professional club to play there and tap into the crowd potential of the area. They formed a new club called Crystal Palace F.C., to play at the stadium.[56] When the First World War broke out the Palace and grounds were seized by the armed forces, and in 1915 the club were forced to move by the Admiralty. They found a temporary base at the Herne Hill Velodrome. Although other clubs had offered the use of their ground to Palace, the club felt it best to remain as close to their natural catchment area as possible.[57] When Croydon Common F.C. were wound up in 1917, the club took over their old stadium located at the Nest,[58] but in 1919 they began the purchase of the land on which they would eventually build Selhurst Park, their current home.[59]

The renowned stadium architect, Archibald Leitch, was employed to draw up plans, and the club constructed and completed the ground in time for the 1924–25 season.[59] It remained relatively unchanged, with only the introduction of floodlights and maintenance and updating until 1969 when the Arthur Wait stand was constructed. The Main Stand became all-seater in 1979 and more work followed in the 1980s when the Whitehorse Lane End was redeveloped to allow for a Sainsbury's supermarket, club offices and a club shop. The Arthur Wait stand became all seater in 1990, and in 1994 the Holmesdale Terrace was redeveloped, replaced with a two tier Stand. Selhurst's attendance record was set in 1979, with an official total of 51,482.[60] After all the redevelopments to the ground and safety requirements due to the Taylor Report, the ground's current capacity is 26,309.[61] Proposals were put forward to move the club back to the Crystal Palace National Stadium in 2010,[62] but after the club gained promotion to the Premier League in 2013 there has been a renewed focus on redeveloping their current home into a 40,000 seater stadium.[61][63] Revised plans for a new 13,500-seater Main Stand (extending overall stadium capacity to 34,000) were approved at a Croydon Council meeting on 19 April 2018
Crystal Palace have a fan base predominantly from the local area which draws on South London, Kent, and Surrey. Their original home, at The Crystal Palace, was on the boundary with Kent, while Selhurst Park was within Surrey's borders until the London Government Act 1963 saw Greater London encompass Croydon. The club's passionate support at home games emanates from the Holmesdale Road Stand, in which the ultras group the Holmesdale Fanatics have been based since 2005.

The fans have established at least two other supporters groups. The Palace Independent Supporters' Association was set up to raise supporter concerns with the club,[65] while the Crystal Palace Supporters' Trust was originally established to enable fans to purchase the club during the administration of 2000. The Trust remained in existence, and now lists one of its aims as building "a new state-of-the-art training ground to lease to the Club".[66]

A number of fanzines have been produced by the fans over the years. Eagle Eye launched in 1987 and ran until 1994, with a number of contributors launching the replacement Palace Echo in 1995, running until 2007.[67] The Eastern Eagles, So Glad You're Mine and One More Point were also published by fans in the 1990s.[68] When One More Point ceased publication, Five Year Plan launched in its place,[69] and maintains an online presence.[70] Supporters also congregate on two internet forums, The BBS and Holmesdale.net which the club use as channels to communicate with fans
Being a London club means they compete against a number of other local clubs for the attention of supporters but the club does have a recognisably large catchment area of 900,000.[63][72] When the new owners took control in 2010, they sought the fans' input into future decisions. They consulted on a new badge design, and when their chosen designs were rejected the club instead opted for a design based on a fans' idea from an internet forum.[73] The club are also strengthening their ties with the local community, and through the Crystal Palace F.C. Foundation they work with local London boroughs of Croydon, Bromley and Sutton to provide sports and educational programmes. Through this work the club hope to develop their supporter base and geographical base. The Foundation's work was recognised by the Football League in August 2009 with their Silver Standard Community Scheme Award.[74]

The club also maintains a sizeable celebrity support. Kevin Day and Jo Brand host an annual comedy night for Comic Relief and the Palace Academy,[75] and the club also count fellow comedians Eddie Izzard, and Mark Steel amongst their fans. The actor Neil Morrissey developed Palace Ale, a beer on sale in the ground,[76] while actor Bill Nighy is patron of the CPSCC, a Crystal Palace-based charity.[77] Radio DJ David Jensen is chairman of the Crystal Palace Vice presidents Club[78] and acted as spokesman for the CPFC 2010 consortium during their takeover bid for the club. Actor, writer and producer John Salthouse was on the books of Palace as a player from 1968 to 1970 under the name of John Lewis,[79] and was also a mascot for the club as a child.[80] He incorporated the club into his role as Tony in Abigail's Party.[81] Susanna Reid revealed her love of Palace while taking part in Strictly Come Dancing, visiting Selhurst Park for inspiration.[82]

Rivalries
Due to their location in the capital, Crystal Palace are involved in a number of local derbies, mostly across South London. They enjoy rivalries with both Millwall and former tenants Charlton Athletic. They have a fierce rivalry with Brighton & Hove Albion which did not develop until Palace's relegation to the Third Division in 1974, reaching its height when the two teams were drawn together in the first round of the 1976–77 FA Cup. The game went to two replays, but the controversy was based on referee Ron Challis ordering a successful Brighton penalty be retaken because of Palace player encroachment. The retake was saved, Palace won the game 1–0 and a fierce rivalry was born.[83]

Ownership
Due to the Football Association not wishing the owners of the FA Cup Final venue to also possess their own football team, a separate company was established to form and own the club. The first chairman, Sydney Bourne, was found by club secretary Edmund Goodman after he had examined records of FA Cup Final ticket purchasers. Goodman noted his name as one that had bought a number of tickets every year, and so met with Bourne and found him very agreeable to the idea of the new club. Bourne was invited onto the board of directors and elected chairman at the club's first ever meeting. He remained chairman until his death in 1930.[84]

Local businessman Arthur Wait established a consortium of seven other businessmen to purchase the club in 1949, and they initially rotated the chairmanship.[85][86] In 1958 Wait became the chairman, before being replaced by Raymond Bloye in 1972.[87] Bloye's ownership lasted until 26 January 1981, when property developer Ron Noades and his small consortium took control of the club. Noades eventually sold the club to Mark Goldberg on 5 June 1998, becoming the second longest serving chairman behind Sydney Bourne. Goldberg's tenure of the club was not a success and the club entered administration in March 1999. Although the fans established a group, the Crystal Palace Supporters' Trust in a bid to gain control of the club, millionaire Simon Jordan negotiated a deal with creditors and the administrator, and a new company, CPFC 2000 took control. This company entered administration in January 2010, and it was not until June of that year that a takeover was completed by a consortium of four wealthy fans known as CPFC 2010.[88]

CPFC 2010 was established by a consortium of four businessmen, Steve Parish, Martin Long, Stephen Browett and Jeremy Hosking in 2010, with each owning a 25% share of the company.[89][90] The four successfully negotiated a take-over with the administrator Brendan Guilfoyle and a company voluntary arrangement was formally accepted by company creditors on 20 August 2010.[91] CPFC 2010 also purchased the ground from Lloyds Bank after a demonstration by fans put pressure on the bank to agree terms.[92][93]

On 18 December 2015, it was announced that a new deal had been signed with American investors Josh Harris and David Blitzer.[94] The club stated that Steve Parish would continue as chairman alongside Harris and Blitzer as general partners in a new structure, and that Browett, Long and Hosking would also retain a substantial investment.[95]

Later company accounts showed that the ownership figures were: Steve Parish 18%, Steve Browett 5%, Jeremy Hosking 5% and Martin Long 2.5% with the remainder being owned by Palace Holdco LP (a limited partnership registered in Delaware) 67.5% and Palace Parallel LLC (a company also registered in Delaware) 1.5%. Both Palace Holdco and Palace Parallel have 180 preference shares each. As the Delaware companies do not have to reveal their owners the exact ownership of the club is therefore unknown but Steve Parish confirmed that each of Harris and Blitzer had an 18% share to match his own.

Statistics and records
Jim Cannon holds the record for Crystal Palace appearances, having played 660 first-team matches between 1973 and 1988.[96] He also holds the record for most League appearances, making 571.[97] Cannon joined the club as a trainee, and of his appearances only four of them were made as a substitute. His first appearance was made aged 19, scoring in a home win against Chelsea on 31 March 1973. Cannon's last game was on 7 May 1988, a home win against Manchester City.[98] Peter Simpson holds the record for the most goals scored in a season, 54 in the 1930–31 season in Division Three (South). Simpson, who signed for the club from Kettering Town, is also the top scorer over a career – 165 between 1929 and 1935.[96] Wayne Hennessey holds the club record for most international caps
Palace were inaugural champions of the newly formed Third Division in 1920–21, which was also their first ever season in the Football League and so became one of only a small group of clubs to have achieved the feat of winning a Football League Division at the first time of asking. Their average league attendance of 19,092 in the 1960–61 season and the attendance of 37,774 for the Good Friday game at Selhurst Park between Palace and Millwall the same season are Fourth Division attendance records.[102] Palace's official record home attendance is 51,482 for a Division Two match against Burnley on 11 May 1979.[103] The club's widest victory margin in the league was the 9–0 win against Barrow in the Fourth Division in 1959, while their heaviest defeat in the league was by the same scoreline, 0–9 against Liverpool in 1989 in Division One.[103]

The highest transfer fee received for a Palace player is £50 million, from Manchester United for Aaron Wan-Bissaka in June 2019, while the highest transfer fee paid by the club to date was for Christian Benteke from Liverpool in August 2016, for £32 million.

The club's highest ever league finish so far is third place in the Football League First Division, which is now called the Premier League, achieved in the 1990–91 season. Palace hold the record for the most points for a relegated Premier League club, with 49 points (although that was in a 42-game season in 1992–93).[104] They are also the only club ever to be relegated from the Premier League even though they finished fourth from bottom, as it had been decided that at the end of the 1994–95 season, the bottom four clubs would be relegated in order to accommodate the league being reduced from 22 to 20 clubs for the 1995–96 season; Palace's points total that season of 45 is also the second-highest points total in Premier League history for a relegated club.[104] Palace hold the record for the most Play-off final wins (4) resulting in promotion to the top flight. Each of these play-off final victories occurred at a different location: Selhurst Park in 1989 (the first leg of the two-legged final was played at Ewood Park in Blackburn), old Wembley Stadium in 1997, Millennium Stadium in Cardiff in 2004, and new Wembley in 2013.

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