الثلاثاء، 31 ديسمبر 2019

Rajasthan

Rajasthan (/ˈrɑːdʒəstæn/ Hindustani pronunciation: [raːdʒəsˈtʰaːn] (About this soundlisten); literally, "Land of Kings")[8] is a state in northern India.[9][10][11] The state covers an area of 342,239 square kilometres (132,139 sq mi) or 10.4 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. Rajasthan is located on the northwestern side of India, where it comprises most of the wide and inhospitable Thar Desert (also known as the "Great Indian Desert") and shares a border with the Pakistani provinces of Punjab to the northwest and Sindh to the west, along the Sutlej-Indus river valley. Elsewhere it is bordered by five other Indian states: Punjab to the north; Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast; Madhya Pradesh to the southeast; and Gujarat to the southwest.

Major features include the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilisation at Kalibanga and Balathal; the Dilwara Temples, a Jain pilgrimage site at Rajasthan's only hill station, Mount Abu, in the ancient Aravalli mountain range; and, in eastern Rajasthan, the Keoladeo National Park near Bharatpur, a World Heritage Site[12] known for its bird life. Rajasthan is also home to three national tiger reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur, Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar and Mukundra Hill Tiger Reserve in Kota.

The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region[13] – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur. Other important cities are Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner, Ajmer and Udaipur. The economy of Rajasthan is the ninth-largest state economy in India with ₹9.24 lakh crore (US$130 billion) in gross domestic product and a per capita GDP of ₹108,000 (US$1,600).[3] Rajasthan ranks 22nd among Indian states in human development index
Etymology
Rajasthan literally means "Land of Kings" or "King's Abode" (from raja "king" and -sthan land, abode" from Sanskrit sthā́na).[8]

The oldest reference to Rajasthan is found in a stone inscription dated back to 625 A.D.[14] The print mention of the name "Rajasthan" appears in the 1829 publication Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India, while the earliest known record of "Rajputana" as a name for the region is in George Thomas's 1800 memoir Military Memories.[15] John Keay, in his book India: A History, stated that "Rajputana" was coined by the British in 1829, John Briggs, translating Ferishta's history of early Islamic India, used the phrase "Rajpoot (Rajput) princes" rather than "Indian princes".[16]

History
Ancient
Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation and Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization.[17] Another archaeological excavation at Balathal site in Udaipur district shows a settlement contemporary with the Harrapan civilisation dating back to 3000 – 1500 BC.

Stone Age tools dating from 5,000 to 200,000 years were found in Bundi and Bhilwara districts of the state.[18]

Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur.[19][20] The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar (modern Bairat), which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata.[21][need quotation to verify]

Bhargava[22] identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh and Rewari as part of Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta.[23] Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only. Ashrams of Vedic seers Bhrigu and his son Chayvan Rishi, for whom Chyawanprash was formulated, were near Dhosi Hill part of which lies in Dhosi village of Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan and part lies in Mahendragarh district of Haryana.[citation needed]

The Western Kshatrapas (405–35 BC), the Saka rulers of the western part of India, were successors to the Indo-Scythians, and were contemporaneous with the Kushans, who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era (with their calendar), marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state.[24]

Classical
Gurjars
Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, the region was known as Gurjaratra.[25] Up to the 10th century AD, almost all of North India acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars, with their seat of power at Kannauj.[26]

Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century. The chief accomplishment of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Historian R. C. Majumdar says that this was openly acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Now there seems little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Arabs beyond the confines of Sindh, their only conquest for nearly 300 years.[27]

Medieval and Early Modern
Traditionally the Rajputs, Gurjars, Jats, Meenas, Bhils, Rajpurohits, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Meghwals, Sermals, Rajput Malis (Sainis) and other tribes made a great contribution in building the state of Rajasthan. All these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land. Brahmins, according to Outlook constituted 8% to 10% of the population of Rajasthan as per a 2003 report, but only 7% in a 2007 report.[30][31] According to a 2007 DNA India report, 12.5% of the state are Brahmins.[32]

Prithviraj Chauhan defeated the invading Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in 1191. In 1192 CE, Muhammad Ghori decisively defeated Prithviraj at the Second Battle of Tarain. After the defeat of Chauhan in 1192 CE, a part of Rajasthan came under Muslim rulers. The principal centers of their powers were Nagaur and Ajmer. Ranthambhore was also under their suzerainty. At the beginning of the 13th century, the most prominent and powerful state of Rajasthan was Mewar. The Rajputs resisted the Muslim incursions into India, although a number of Rajput kingdoms eventually became subservient to the Delhi Sultanate.

The Rajputs put up resistance to the Islamic invasions with their warfare and chivalry for centuries. The Rana's of Mewar led other kingdoms in its resistance to outside rule. Rana Hammir Singh, defeated the Tughlaq dynasty and recovered a large portion of Rajasthan. The indomitable Rana Kumbha defeated the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat and made Mewar the most powerful Rajput Kingdom in India. The ambitious Rana Sanga united the various Rajput clans and fought against the foreign powers in India. Rana Sanga defeated the Afghan Lodi Empire of Delhi and crushed the Turkic Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat. Rana Sanga then tried to create an Indian empire but was defeated by the first Mughal Emperor Babur at Khanua. The defeat was due to betrayal by the Tomar king Silhadi of Raisen. After Rana Sangas death there was no one who could check the rapid expansion of the Mughal Empire.[33]

Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. He won 22 battles against Afghans, from Punjab to Bengal including states of Ajmer and Alwar in Rajasthan, and defeated Akbar's forces twice at Agra and Delhi in 1556 at Battle of Delhi[34] before acceding to the throne of Delhi and establishing the "Hindu Raj" in North India, albeit for a short duration, from Purana Quila in Delhi. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556.
During Akbar's reign most of the Rajput kings accepted Mughal suzerainty, but the rulers of Mewar (Rana Udai Singh II) and Marwar (Rao Chandrasen Rathore) refused to have any form of alliance with the Mughals. To teach the Rajputs a lesson Akbar attacked Udai Singh and killed Rajput commander Jaimal of Chitor and the citizens of Mewar in large numbers. Akbar killed 20 – 25,000 unarmed citizens in Chittor on the grounds that they had actively helped in the resistance.[35]

Maharana Pratap took an oath to avenge the citizens of Chittor, he fought the Mughal empire till his death and liberated most of Mewar apart from Chittor itself. Maharana Pratap soon became the most celebrated warrior of Rajasthan and became famous all over India for his sporadic warfare and noble actions. According to Satish Chandra, "Rana Pratap's defiance of the mighty Mughal empire, almost alone and unaided by the other Rajput states, constitutes a glorious saga of Rajput valour and the spirit of self-sacrifice for cherished principles. Rana Pratap's methods of sporadic warfare was later elaborated further by Malik Ambar, the Deccani general, and by Shivaji".[36]

Rana Amar Singh I continued his ancestors war against the Mughals under Jehangir, he repelled the Mughal armies at Dewar. Later an expedition was again sent under leadership of Prince Khurram, which caused much damage to life and property of Mewar.[37] Many temples were destroyed, several villages were put on fire and ladies and children were captured and tortured to make Amar Singh accept surrender.[37]

During Aurangzeb's rule Rana Raj Singh I and Veer Durgadas Rathore were chief among those who defied the intolerant emperor of Delhi. They took advantage of the Aravalli hills and caused heavy damage on the Mughal armies that were trying to occupy Rajasthan.[38][39]

After Aurangzebs death Bahadur Shah I tried to subjugate Rajasthan like his ancestors but his plan backfired when the three Rajput Raja's of Amber, Udaipur and Jodhpur made a joint resistance to the Mughals. The Rajputs first expelled the commandants of Jodhpur and Bayana and recovered Amer by a night attack. They next killed Sayyid Hussain Khan Barha, the commandant of Mewat and many other Mughal officers. Bahadur Shah I, then in the Deccan was forced to patch up a truce with the Rajput Rajas.[40] The Jats, under Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city taking with them the two great silver doors of the entrance of the famous Taj Mahal which were then melted down by Suraj Mal in 1763.

Over the years, the Mughals began to have internal disputes which greatly distracted them at times. The Mughal Empire continued to weaken, and with the decline of the Mughal Empire in the late 18th century, Rajputana came under the influence of the Marathas. The Maratha Empire, which had replaced the Mughal Empire as the overlord of the subcontinent, was finally replaced by the British Empire in 1818.

In the 19th century the Rajput kingdoms were exhausted, they had been drained financially and in manpower after continuous wars and due to heavy tributes exacted by the Maratha Empire. To save their kingdoms from instability, rebellions and banditry the Rajput kings concluded treaties with the British in the early 19th century, accepting British suzerainty and control over their external affairs in return for internal autonomy.

Modern
The geographic features of Rajasthan are the Thar Desert and the Aravalli Range, which runs through the state from southwest to northeast, almost from one end to the other, for more than 850 kilometres (530 mi). Mount Abu lies at the southwestern end of the range, separated from the main ranges by the West Banas River, although a series of broken ridges continues into Haryana in the direction of Delhi where it can be seen as outcrops in the form of the Raisina Hill and the ridges farther north. About three-fifths of Rajasthan lies northwest of the Aravallis, leaving two-fifths on the east and south direction.

The Aravalli Range runs across the state from the southwest peak Guru Shikhar (Mount Abu), which is 1,722 metres (5,650 ft) in height, to Khetri in the northeast. This range divides the state into 60% in the northwest of the range and 40% in the southeast. The northwest tract is sandy and unproductive with little water but improves gradually from desert land in the far west and northwest to comparatively fertile and habitable land towards the east. The area includes the Thar Desert. The south-eastern area, higher in elevation (100 to 350 m above sea level) and more fertile, has a very diversified topography. in the south lies the hilly tract of Mewar. In the southeast, a large area within the districts of Kota and Bundi forms a tableland. To the northeast of these districts is a rugged region (badlands) following the line of the Chambal River. Farther north the country levels out; the flat plains of the northeastern Bharatpur district are part of an alluvial basin. Merta City lies in the geographical centre of Rajasthan.

The Aravalli Range and the lands to the east and southeast of the range are generally more fertile and better watered. This region is home to the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion, with tropical dry broadleaf forests that include teak, Acacia, and other trees. The hilly Vagad region, home to the cities of Dungarpur and Banswara lies in southernmost Rajasthan, on the border with Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. With the exception of Mount Abu, Vagad is the wettest region in Rajasthan, and the most heavily forested. North of Vagad lies the Mewar region, home to the cities of Udaipur and Chittaurgarh. The Hadoti region lies to the southeast, on the border with Madhya Pradesh. North of Hadoti and Mewar lies the Dhundhar region, home to the state capital of Jaipur. Mewat, the easternmost region of Rajasthan, borders Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Eastern and southeastern Rajasthan is drained by the Banas and Chambal rivers, tributaries of the Ganges.

The northwestern portion of Rajasthan is generally sandy and dry. Most of this region is covered by the Thar Desert which extends into adjoining portions of Pakistan. The Aravalli Range does not intercept the moisture-giving southwest monsoon winds off the Arabian Sea, as it lies in a direction parallel to that of the coming monsoon winds, leaving the northwestern region in a rain shadow. The Thar Desert is thinly populated; the town of Jodhpur is the largest city in the desert and known as the gateway of the Thar desert. The desert has some major districts like Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Nagour. This area is also important defence point of view. Jodhpur airbase is India's largest airbase and military, BSF bases are also situated here. A single civil airport is also situated in Jodhpur.

The Northwestern thorn scrub forests lie in a band around the Thar Desert, between the desert and the Aravallis. This region receives less than 400 mm of rain in an average year. Temperatures can sometimes exceed 54 °C in the summer months or 129 degrees Fahrenheit and drop below freezing in the winter. The Godwar, Marwar, and Shekhawati regions lie in the thorn scrub forest zone, along with the city of Jodhpur. The Luni River and its tributaries are the major river system of Godwar and Marwar regions, draining the western slopes of the Aravallis and emptying southwest into the great Rann of Kutch wetland in neighbouring Gujarat. This river is saline in the lower reaches and remains potable only up to Balotara in Barmer district. The Ghaggar River, which originates in Haryana, is an intermittent stream that disappears into the sands of the Thar Desert in the northern corner of the state and is seen as a remnant of the primitive Sarasvati river.
Though a large percentage of the total area is desert with little forest cover, Rajasthan has a rich and varied flora and fauna. The natural vegetation is classed as Northern Desert Thorn Forest (Champion 1936). These occur in small clumps scattered in a more or less open form. The density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall.

The Desert National Park in Jaisalmer is spread over an area of 3,162 square kilometres (1,221 sq mi), is an excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert and its diverse fauna. Seashells and massive fossilised tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert. The region is a haven for migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see many eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrels and vultures. Short-toed snake eagles (Circaetus gallicus), tawny eagles (Aquila rapax), spotted eagles (Aquila clanga), laggar falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels are the commonest of these.

The Ranthambore National Park located in Sawai Madhopur,[45] one of the well known tiger reserves in the country, became a part of Project Tiger in 1973.

The Dhosi Hill located in the district of Jhunjunu, known as 'Chayvan Rishi's Ashram', where 'Chyawanprash' was formulated for the first time, has unique and rare herbs growing.

The Sariska Tiger Reserve located in Alwar district, 200 kilometres (120 mi) from Delhi and 107 kilometres (66 mi) from Jaipur, covers an area of approximately 800 square kilometres (310 sq mi). The area was declared a national park in 1979.

Tal Chhapar Sanctuary is a very small sanctuary in Sujangarh, Churu District, 210 kilometres (130 mi) from Jaipur in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of blackbuck. Desert foxes and the caracal, an apex predator, also known as the desert lynx, can also be spotted, along with birds such as the partridge, harriers, Eastern Imperial Eagle, Pale Harrier, Marsh Harrier, Short-toed Eagle, Tawny Eagle, Sparrow Hawk, Crested Lark, Demoiselle Crane, Skylarks, Green Bee-eater, Brown Dove, Black Ibis and sand grouse.[46] The Great Indian bustard, known locally as the godavan, and which is a state bird, has been classed as critically endangered since 2011.[47]

Wildlife protection
Rajasthan is also noted for its national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. There are four national park and wildlife sanctuaries: Keoladeo National Park of Bharatpur, Sariska Tiger Reserve of Alwar, Ranthambore National Park of Sawai Madhopur, and Desert National Park of Jaisalmer. A national level institute, Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI) an autonomous institute of the ministry of forestry is situated in Jodhpur and continuously work on desert flora and their conservation.

Ranthambore National Park is 7 km from Sawai Madhopur Railway Station. it is known worldwide for its tiger population and is considered by both wilderness lovers and photographers as one of the best places in India to spot tigers. At one point, due to poaching and negligence, tigers became extinct at Sariska, but five tigers have been relocated there.[48] Prominent among the wildlife sanctuaries are Mount Abu Sanctuary, Bhensrod Garh Sanctuary, Darrah Sanctuary, Jaisamand Sanctuary, Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jawahar Sagar sanctuary, and Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary.

Communication
Major ISP and telecom companies are present in Rajasthan including Airtel, Data Infosys Limited, Reliance Limited, Jio, RAILTEL, Software Technology Parks of India (STPI), Tata Telecom and Vodafone. Data Infosys was the first Internet Service Provider[49] (ISP) to bring internet in Rajasthan in April 1999 and OASIS was first private mobile telephone company.

Rangoli designs

Rangoli is an art form, originating in the Indian subcontinent, in which patterns are created on the floor or the ground using materials such as colored rice, dry flour, colored sand or flower petals. It is usually made during Diwali or Tihar, Onam, Pongal and other Hindu festivals in the Indian subcontinent. Designs are passed from one generation to the next, keeping both the art form and the tradition alive.

The purpose of rangoli is to feel strength, generosity, and it is thought to bring good luck. Design depictions may also vary as they reflect traditions, folklore, and practices that are unique to each area. It is traditionally done by girls or women. Generally, this practice is showcased during occasions such as festivals, auspicious observances, marriage celebrations and other similar milestones and gatherings.

Rangoli designs can be simple geometric shapes, deity impressions, or flower and petal shapes (appropriate for the given celebrations), but they can also be very elaborate designs crafted by numerous people. The base material is usually dry or wet powdered rice or dry flour, to which sindooram (vermilion), pasupu (turmeric) and other natural colours can be added. Chemical colors are a modern variation. Other materials include red brick powder and even flowers and petals, as in the case of flower rangolis.
Etymology
From Sanskrit word "रङ्ग" which means color. Rangoli is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘rangavalli’.

The various names for this art form and similar practices include muggu (ముగ్గు) in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, rangoli/rangole (ರಂಗೋಲಿ/ರಂಗೋಲೆ) in Karnataka, kolam (கோலம்) in Tamil Nadu, mandana/mandas (माँडना) in Rajasthan, chowkpurana (छोवकपुराणा) in Chhattisgarh, alpana/alpona (আল্পনা) in West Bengal, muruja/marje (मूर्जा) or jhoti (झोटी) or chita (चिता) in Odisha, haripan/aripan (आरिपना) in Bihar, chowkpujan (चौकपूजन) in Uttar Pradesh, pookkalam (പൂക്കളം) in Kerala,Rangoli/ sanskarbharti/bharti in Maharashtra, saathiya/gahuli in Gujarat, and aipan/eipan (ऐपण) in Uttarakhand.[
Rangoli in different states
In middle India mainly in Chhattisgarh Rangoli is called Chaook and is generally drawn at the entrance of a house or any other building. Dried rice flour or other forms of white dust powder is used for drawing Chaooks. Although there are numerous traditional Chaook patterns, many more can be created depending on the creativity of the person who draws it. It is considered auspicious as it signifies showering of good luck and prosperity on the house and in the family. It is not drawn like a picture. Patterns are created based on certain systems. Generally, women get up early in the morning and clean the area just outside the entrance of their houses with cow dung, sprinkle the area with water and draw the Chaook. In Maharashtra and Karnataka, rangolis are drawn on the doors of homes so that evil forces attempting to enter are repelled. During the festival of Onam in Kerala, flowers are laid down for each of the ten days of the celebration, the design growing larger and more complex every day. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,and many parts of Maharashtra, the Rangoli or Kolam is drawn upon the ground or floor daily. The designs are geometric and symmetrical मूल्यतः shapes but the materials used are similar rangoli: rice flour or slurry is used. In Rajasthan the Mandana are painted on walls. Mmandne, various festivals, major festivals and can be categorized based on seasons. Different shapes depending on the size of it also can be shared. Kumaon's "writing beat 'or in a variety of plotting symbols Thapa, artistic designs, Bellbutoan is used. Alikhthap of society apart – separated by different groups – different icons and art media is used. In Odisha, the Murja is put at the aangan of every home in front of the Tulsi plant called "Tulasi chahura". The Rangoli patterns mostly are dedicated to Lord Krishna and Lord Jagannath. The Murja festival is observed during the auspicious month of Kartika ending on Kartika Purnima.

The Rangoli's most important element is being colourful. These are auspicious symbols that have a central role in the design. The design for generations are passed on as they are made – and is required to make these symbols. Traditionally, each new generation learns the art and thus a family keeps the tradition intact. Some major symbols used in Rangoli are the lotus flower, its leaves, mango, Tue vase, fish, different kind of birds like parrots, swans, peacocks, and human figures and foliage. Oftentimes Rangoli is made on special occasions like Diwali. Some special patterns for Diwali Rangoli are the Diya also called Deep, Ganesha, Lakshmi, flowers or birds of India.

The second key element is using the materials used to make the rangoli. The materials used are easily found everywhere. Therefore, this art is prevalent in all homes, rich or poor. Normally the major ingredients used to make rangoli are – Pise rice solution, the dried powder made from the leaves color, charcoal, burned soil was, wood sawdust, etc..

The third important element is the background. Rangoli use the background of a clear floor or wall or Llype is used. Rangoli can be made in a yard in the middle, corners, or as a bell is created around.

Dehri gateway is a tradition of making rangoli. God's seat, depending on lamp, place of worship and sacrifice on the altar is a tradition of decorating rangoli. With time, imagination and innovative ideas in Rangoli art is also incorporated. Hospitality and tourism has also had its effect and rangoli has been commercially developed in places such as hotels. Its traditional charm, artistry and importance still remain.

Rangoli is also created using coloured rice, dry flour, flower petals, turmeric (pasupu), Vermillion (Sindooram) and coloured sand. The patterns include the face of Hindu deities, geometric shapes peacock motifs, and round floral designs. Many of these motifs are traditional and are handed down by the previous generations. This makes rangoli a representation of India's rich heritage and the fact that it is a land of festivals and colour. People celebrate rangoli with davali patterns.

Creation of Rangoli
There are two primary ways to make a Rangoli, dry and wet, referring to the materials used to create the outline and (if desired) fill that outline with colour. Using a white material like chalk, sand, paint or flour, the artist marks a centre-point on the ground and cardinal points around it, usually in a square, hexagon or circle depending on region and personal preference. Ramifying that initially-simple pattern creates what is often an intricate and beautiful design. Motifs from nature (leaves, petals, feathers) and geometric patterns are common. Less common but by no means rare are representational forms (like a peacock, icon or landscape). "Readymade Rangoli" patterns, often as stencils or stickers, are becoming common, making it easier to create detailed or precise designs.

Once the outline is complete, the artist may choose to illuminate it with colour, again using either wet or dry ingredients like paints, coloured rice-water, gypsum powder, coloured sand or dry pigments. The artist might also choose unprocessed materials like seeds, grains, spices, leaves or flower petals to achieve lifelike hues. Modern materials like crayons, dyes or dyed fabrics, acrylic paints and artificial colouring agents are also becoming common, allowing for brilliant and vibrant colour choices. A newer but less artificial method involves using cement coloured with marble powder. This rather precise method requires training, but beautiful portraits can be drawn in this medium.

Shape, design and material can be influenced by regional traditions. A square grid is common in North India as is a hexagonal grid in South India; Onam Rangolis are typically circular. In North India, the colour is most often based on gypsum (chirodi), in South India on rice flour and Onam Rangolis are typically flower based. The rapid and widespread migration and mixing of people within India can be seen by the way these styles are now freely adopted and mixed across the country. It is also becoming common to see experimentation like sawdust-based floating Rangolis, freeform designs, and exotic materials.

It is particularly notable that the Tamil version of the Rangoli, the Kolam, prizes symmetry, complexity, precision, and intricacy rather than the flamboyance of Rangolis found in North India. Many people find it enjoyable to try and figure out how such intricate designs are drawn with a grid, and hence, it allows the mind to be exercised.
In India, there is a prevalent myth that Andaal worshipped Lord Thirumaal and was married to him in the month of Margazhi. During this month, unmarried girls get up before dawn and draw a Rangoli to welcome the God Thirumal. Mentions of rangoli creation are also found in Hindu mythology. There are also references of Rangoli in legends such as Ramayana - at Sita's wedding pavilion where there is a discussion about Rangoli. Cultural development of Rangoli in the South originated in the era of the Chola Rulers. There are modern and traditional rangoli designs. The designs are usually inspired by nature, but they can also be in the form of abstract art.

Ayia Napa

Ayia Napa (Greek: Αγία Νάπα, locally [aˈʝanːapa]), officially romanised Agia Napa, is a tourist resort at the far eastern end of the southern coast of Cyprus.
Etymology
The name Ayia Napa is derived from a Venetian-era monastery of the same name, located in the center of the town, next to the square that today is the clubbing centre.[2] The word "Ayia" means "holy" in Greek. "Napa" is archaic and means "wooded valley" or "dell". In ancient times the area surrounding the town was covered with thick forest.[3][4][5]

Tourism Strategy
The city in 2013 under new leadership and management shifted its strategy and decided to improve on quality rather than quantity.[clarification needed] The vision of the city according to public statements of mayor Yiannis Karousos is to by 2030 become the best and most cosmopolitan tourist resort of the mediterranean.[6][7][8][9]

Beginning in 2013, the resort has implemented a series of actions in fulfilling its vision, upgrades in public infrastructure and the hospitality sector (hotels and restaurants), shutting down problem establishments, and attracted mega projects such as the 220 million euro marina.[10] Additionally, major events and festivals have been added to the calendar, in order to improve the quality of the resort and promote its cosmopolitan aspects.[11] The vision set by the city is supported by the Cyprus Tourism Strategy, which for 2030 was completed in March 2017,[12] and which sets as a vision for Ayia Napa the following: Ayia Napa should aspire to be regarded as one of Europe’s top three beach and nightclubbing holiday destinations, with a customer value proposition (CVP) offering the best beach and marine experience in Cyprus for young adults, complemented by international standard beach clubs and nightlife.

The strategy evaluates the quality of Ayia Napa as 3.4/5 and proposes that its future direction should be an increase in quality in all the areas of the tourism product from accommodation to nightlife having as a goal to increase its quality evaluation to 4.4/5 [13]

On March 6, 2018 the city announced a shift on its tourism strategy, having as a main goal turning low quality nightlife into a cosmopolitan nightlife.[14][15] The city council, after hearing all the stakeholders of the Ayia Napa tourism, voted unanimously against the low quality youth tourist product (organised youth) which typically misbehaves and does not respect the laws of Cyprus and with their actions create negative publicity for the resort and do damage to the reputation of the Ayia Napa brand, which, according to the announcement, the city has worked very hard to reposition and reintroduce in the last years.[when?][16][17]

History
According to local legend, the area around the monastery was accidentally discovered by a hunter in pursuit of his prey. Upon discovery, the icon of the Virgin Mary in the area was called Virgin Mary of Napa, eventually shortened to Ayia Napa. The monastery, built in 1100, was built around a cave, in honour of the Virgin Mary of Ayia Napa. According to local tradition, nobody lived within close vicinity of Ayia Napa until 1790. The first inhabitant was Nikolaos Kemitzis from Thessaloniki, who arrived from Greece around 1790 and settled in the village of Panayia, located on the northeastern part of Ayia Napa. Kemitzis had a fight with the Ottoman authorities who ruled Cyprus at the time, and decided to move near the monastery of Ayia Napa.

Government Recognition Awards and Statistics
The Government of Cyprus, recognizing the importance of Ayia Napa to Cyprus' economy, decided in 2014 to characterize Ayia Napa as a main city-urban center.[18][19][20] This was credited to the efforts of the mayor of Ayia Napa, Yiannis Karousos.[21]

Today, Ayia Napa is the largest tourist resort in Cyprus, with a 27,000-person-bed capacity and more than 175 hotels and apartments of all sizes. In 2017, the resort received over 700,000 tourists and accommodated 5 million overnight stays,[22] representing approximately 30% of all Cyprus overnight stays.[23] The city of Ayia Napa has the seventh largest budget of the 30 active municipalities of Cyprus, and employs 280 people.

The City was recognized as a Prime City Destination by the Oxford Business Assembly, and was awarded in 2018 the International flag of investment and innovation attractiveness 'Flag of Europe" and the International Certificate of Excellence in Investment and Innovation (ICEII).[24][25]

Geography
Ayia Napa lies near Cape Greco at the eastern part of Cyprus, south of Famagusta, and forms part of a larger area known as Kokkinochoria ("Red Villages", a name derived from the vivid red colour of the soil). It is a town of the Famagusta District, in the remaining Greek-controlled southern part of the district, while the northern part has been occupied by Turkish forces since 1974.

Ayia Napa is about 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) from Protaras, a town that has seen similar development but still manages to remain low-key and more favourable for families and Cypriot locals.

Beaches
The resort has twenty-seven beaches, of which fourteen have been awarded the blue flag award, more than any other resort in Cyprus.[26][27] In 2018, it was announced that Nissi Beach ranked as third in the list of the most popular beaches on Instagram.[28][29] A CNN feature ranked Nissi Beach as the best beach to visit for the month of July 2018.[30] In 2011, it came first in the TripAdvisor list of the best beaches in Europe[31] In 2017, Makronissos Beach was chosen by Travel weekly as the third best beach for Cyprus and Greece.[32]

Cultural sites and events
Sites
Ayia Napa Medieval Monastery is the main point of significant historical interest in the Ayia Napa area.[33] The Makronissos Tombs are an archaeological site consisting of set of ancient rock-cut tombs, an adjacent sanctuary and quarry, and evidence of funeral pyres.[34][35]

The town contains two municipal marine museums: the Tornaritis-Pierides Museum of Marine Life and the Thalassa Agia Napa Municipal Museum (also known as the Thalassa Museum of the Sea). The former, founded in 1992, displays marine fossils, specimens, and dioramas.[36] The latter, founded in 2005, displays the "marine heritage of Cyprus, from prehistoric times to the present" and features a full-scale replica of a c. 300 BCE merchant ship which was salvaged during the 1960s.[37][38]

The Ayia Napa Sculpture Park, which is located on the east side of Ayia Napa, was inaugurated in May 2014 with seventeen sculptures. By 2017, the sculpture park contained 144 sculptures through the participation of 104 sculptors. The sculpture park has gained worldwide recognition and was accepted as a member to the International Sculpture Symposium Alliance,[39] and has been turned into an international attraction, with the participation of artists from all over the world. [40]

Festivals
The Ayia Napa International Festival was first held in September 1985 and has since been established as an annual event, usually over the last weekend of September. It takes place in Sepheris Square in Ayia Napa Monastery. The festivities reflect the historic, cultural and agricultural traditions of Ayia Napa and Cyprus as a whole. The programme includes theater performances, operas, concerts, and Cypriot and foreign folk dancing.[41] Visitors can also enjoy art and photo exhibitions, wood carving and silversmithing workshops, and culinary shows with halloumi cheese making.[42]

The Ayia Napa Youth Festival was established in 2010[43] when the Ayia Napa Youth Council accepted the proposal of its president Yiannis Karousos and decided to organise a festival similar to the large music festivals of Europe. The festival is based on several principles such as free entrance, the headliners to be chosen by the public, a charity goal, and a social responsibility message attached to it. All styles of music are welcome. At the first festival, which took place at the harbour square of Ayia Napa, more than 10,000 people visited the festival during the three-day period with bands such as the Greek reggae act Locomondo, pop-rock band MPLE, and hip hop band Stavento featuring Ivi Adamou. 25 rock and metal bands performed. In 2011, the Ayia Napa Youth Festival became international and included the bands Stratovarius, Sabaton, Rotting Christ, Nightstalker, and other bands from all over Europe. The 3rd Ayia Napa Youth Festival took place in 2012.

World record
Following the proposal of Mayor Yiannis Karousos,[44] then President of the Ayia Napa Tourism Committee, on September 16, 2007, the world's longest chain of syrtaki dancers (a famous Greek dance) danced to "Zorba the Greek" in a successful attempt to enter the Guinness Book of World Records. The chain had a total of 268 members of eight dancing groups. Then Ayia Napa Mayor Antonis Tsokkos said the aim of the event was to send the message that the village was interested in Greek culture and to promote the tourist resort abroad. Head of Cultural Services Maria Tofini said that, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, the dancers had to perform in synchronised step for the attempt to qualify. The event drew the attention of tourists and locals, many of whom danced on the beach and in the sea.[45]

Municipality
The City of Ayia Napa is well known for its city management and its applications. They have implemented some major decisions and setup an example in Cyprus municipal management

Beaches are public and under City management. Through the initiative of the City of Ayia Napa all the beaches in Cyprus are under the management of the local authorities(cities and villages). Beaches in Cyprus until the end of 2014 were under the management of private individuals and companies which were given licences to manage the beaches directly and without public tenders. Through the actions of the City of Ayia Napa the management returned to the Municipalities. This fact, benefited the general good and the public interest leading to revenues in excess of 3.5 million euros on annual basis for the City. In order for the City to take over the management of the beaches it had to take some very difficult decisions and implement them [46] the Mayor Yiannis Karousos, who led this initiative, and the city councilors who voted in favor of the proposal, experienced a lot of pressure, threats and several legal actions against them, all which were turned down by the courts.[47]
Participatory Budget.[48] The city of Ayia Napa became the first city in Cyprus who had voted and implemented a participatory budget. in October 2017 the city decided that €240,000 of its development budget will be allocated to projects who will be proposed and chosen by citizens and organisations of Ayia Napa.[49]
Broadcasting live a city council meeting.[50] in January 2017 the City become the first city council in Cyprus who transmitted a live webcast of its council meetings.
Annual Barometer. citizens, businesses and visitors evaluate the City and its services through an annual research survey .Starting 2017 the city implemented an annual survey where citizens, businesses and tourists evaluate the City in a range of features, its services but also state their issues and feedback.[51]
Participate and improve my city application . Improvement of the City with the help of its citizens. the City created an online application where its citizens and visitors can upload and report issues and problems they have in many areas , such as technical, cleaning, repairs, complaints etc. the applicant and the visitors of the application can watch the follow up and the time the city took to reply and fix the issue[52]
Blockchain the city became the 1st City in Cyprus who took a decision to implement blockchain technologies for improving its productivity and services. the City signed an agreement on 2/5/2018, with university of Nicosia, a blockchain and cryptocurrency specialist, in which the university will act as consultant to the city and advise in issues of blockchain, artificial intelligence and smart cities[53][54]
Points of interest
Following his election as mayor in March 2013, Yiannis Karousos implemented a strategy in which visitors will enjoy and be able to visit points of interest other than the beaches and the sea:[55][56]

The Ayia Napa Sculpture Park. This park by January 2018 included more than 200 sculptures from 140 sculptors from all over the world.[57][58]
The Fisherman of Ayia Napa. Fishing is part of the history of Ayia Napa. The population once consisted of mainly fishermen and farmers. This monument was created and dedicated to all the fishermen of the world, and was inaugurated in June 2015.[59]
The Mermaid of Ayia Napa.[60] A sculpture on the harbor of Ayia Napa. The mermaid was inspired through the poems of the Nobel-winning poet George Seferis and through Alexander the Great, as according to legend, she was the sister of Alexander the Great. She has the unique feature of two tails. The sculpture was inaugurated in 2015.[61]
The Lady Farmer. Located in the heart of the city, the statue is a modern version of the lady farmer.[62]
The Farmer of Ayia Napa. A square was created on Yiannaki Pappoulis Street where the sculpture of the Farmer of Ayia Napa was placed. This initiative was under the measures taken for improvements and changes in the city center. The monument was inaugurated in July 2016.[63]
Kemitzides, the Family of Ayia Napa. A collection of three sculptures representing the Kemitzis family, who created Ayia Napa in 1790. The man has Greek characteristics on his clothes because Kemitzis was from Thessaloniki. The lady is a classic Cypriot woman and the child symbolizes the continuation of the family. The project was inaugurated in September 2016. It was donated to the city by five families of Ayia Napa.[64][65]
The Cactus Park. A park was created which includes over 10,000 cactus and dessert plants. Located next to the sculpture park, it was created with voluntary work. The park was inaugurated in June 2015.[66][67]
Artificial Reef. The main interest point inside the artificial reef is the Kyrenia ship, which was donated by the Ministry of Defense to the city of Ayia Napa. Other underwater sculptures are also located in the reef. It was inaugurated in February 2015.[68][69]
The Fishing Boats Roundabout. A touch of the history of Ayia Napa can be seen on the first main roundabout of Ayia Napa. The city was looking for ways to create positive feelings and memories when entering the city. An abandoned fishing boat was transferred there together with some other fishing boats.
The Cape Greco Environmental and Educational Center, which provides information and education with regards to the national park of Cape Greco, a nature 2000 protected area. The center was inaugurated in May 2017[70]
First and Second World War volunteers monument. In October 2016 the city inaugurated in the presence of the Minister of Defence the monument dedicated to the citizens of Ayia Napa who participated in the First and Second World Wars. The monument is called From Yorgopotamos to El Alamein. [71]
Marina
On 30 September 2016,[72] the foundation stone of the Ayia Napa Marina (the largest private project in Cyprus at the time) was set. It is expected to cost €250 million and be completed in 2021.[73] The main investor is Egyptian tycoon Naguib Sawiris.[74] Ayia Napa Mayor Yiannis Karousos presented Sawiris with the town's golden key and said that this was an "exceptional day for the municipality and for Cyprus", further stating that the project underlines Ayia Napa's ambition to become "the best and most cosmopolitan tourist resort in the Mediterranean".[75]

Amusement
WaterWorld Themed Waterpark is an Ancient Greek-themed water park[76] that is one of the biggest themed water parks in Europe, with over 25 rides and attractions. It opened on 7 April 1996[77][78] and has since become one of the most visited places in Cyprus, with over 4 million visitors to date.[when?] The park is a member of the World Water Park Association and the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions

Carlos Ghosn

Carlos Ghosn, KBE (/ɡoʊn/;[1] French: [kaʁlɔs ɡon], born March 9, 1954) is a Brazilian-born French businessman of Lebanese ancestry.[2] Ghosn has served as the CEO of Michelin North America, chairman and CEO of Renault, chairman of AvtoVAZ, chairman and CEO of Nissan, and chairman of Mitsubishi Motors.[3][4][5] Ghosn was also chairman and CEO of the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance, a strategic partnership among those automotive manufacturers through a complex cross-shareholding agreement. The venture has held an approximately 10% market share since 2010, and as of 2017 was reckoned to be the largest automobile group worldwide.[6][7][8][9][10]

In 1996, Renault's CEO Louis Schweitzer hired Ghosn as his deputy and charged him with the task of turning the company around from near bankruptcy. Ghosn elaborated a plan to cut costs for the period 1998–2000, reducing the workforce, revising production processes, standardising vehicle parts and pushing the launch of new models. The company also undertook organisational changes, introducing a lean production system with delegate responsibilities inspired by Japanese systems (the "Renault Production Way"), reforming work methods and centralising research and development at its Technocentre to reduce vehicle conception costs while accelerating such conception.[11] Ghosn became known as "Le Cost Killer".[12] In the early 2000s, for orchestrating one of the auto industry's most aggressive downsizing campaigns and spearheading the turnaround of Nissan from its near bankruptcy in 1999, he earned the nickname "Mr. Fix It".[13]

Following the Nissan financial turnaround, in 2002 Fortune awarded him Asia Businessman of the Year.[14][15] In 2003 Fortune identified him as one of the 10 most powerful people in business outside the U.S.,[16] and its Asian edition voted him Man of the Year.[17] Surveys jointly published by the Financial Times and PricewaterhouseCoopers named him the fourth most respected business leader in 2003,[18] and the third most respected business leader in 2004 and in 2005.[19][20][21] He quickly achieved celebrity status in Japan and in the business world,[22][23] and his life has been chronicled in Japanese comics.[24]

Ghosn stepped down as CEO of Nissan on 1 April 2017, while remaining chairman of the company.[25] He was arrested at Haneda Airport on 19 November 2018, on allegations of under-reporting his earnings and misuse of company assets.[26][27] On 22 November 2018, Nissan's board made a unanimous decision to dismiss Ghosn as Nissan's chairman.[28][29] It was followed by Mitsubishi Motors' board on 26 November 2018.[30][31] Renault and the French government continued to support him, presuming him innocent until proven guilty.[32] However, Ghosn retired as chairman and CEO of Renault on 24 January 2019.[33] While out on bail, Ghosn was re-arrested in Tokyo on 4 April 2019 over new charges of misappropriations of Nissan funds. On 8 April 2019 Nissan shareholders voted to oust Ghosn from the company's board.[34] He was released on bail on 25 April. Ghosn later according to reports fled Japan to go to Lebanon on 30 December thus breaking his bail conditions.
Early life and education
Ghosn's grandfather was Bichara Ghosn, a Maronite Christian who emigrated from French Mandate Lebanon to Brazil at the age of 13, eventually settling in remote Guaporé, Rondônia, near the border between Brazil and Bolivia.[35] Bichara Ghosn was an entrepreneur and eventually headed several companies, in businesses including the rubber trade, the sale and purchase of agricultural products, and aviation.[36] His son Jorge Ghosn married Rose Jazzar, a Nigerian-born woman whose family also came from Lebanon,[37] and they settled in Porto Velho, the state capital of Rondônia, where they had four children.[38]

Carlos Ghosn was born on March 9, 1954, in Porto Velho.[38][39][40] When he was about two years old he became sick after drinking unsanitary water, and his mother moved with him to Rio de Janeiro.[38] He did not fully recover there, and in 1960, when Ghosn was six years old, he and his mother and sister moved to Beirut, Lebanon, where his grandmother and two other sisters lived.[38]

Ghosn completed his secondary school studies in Lebanon, at the Jesuit school Collège Notre-Dame de Jamhour. He then completed his classes préparatoires in Paris, at the Collège Stanislas and the Lycée Saint-Louis.[41] He graduated as an engineer from the École Polytechnique in 1974 and the École des Mines de Paris in 1978.[39][42][43]

Career
Michelin
After graduation in 1978, Ghosn spent 18 years at Michelin, Europe's largest tire maker, initially training and working in several plants in France and Germany.[39][44] In 1981, he became plant manager in Le Puy-en-Velay, France.[39][45] In 1984 he was named head of research and development for the company's industrial tire division.[39][46]

In 1985, when Ghosn was 30 years old, he was appointed chief operating officer (COO) of Michelin's South American operations.[39][47] He returned to Rio de Janeiro, reporting directly to François Michelin, who tasked Ghosn with turning around the operation, which was unprofitable and struggling under Brazil's hyperinflation.[47][48] Ghosn formed cross-functional management teams to determine best practices among the French, Brazilian, and other nationalities working in the South American division.[49] The multicultural experience in Brazil formed the basis of his cross-cultural management style and emphasis on diversity as a core business asset.[49][50] "You learn from diversity ... but you're comforted by commonality", Ghosn has said.[51] The division returned to profitability in two years.[49][52][53]

After turning around Michelin's South American operations, Ghosn was appointed president and COO of Michelin North America in 1989, and moved to Greenville, South Carolina, with his family.[54] He was promoted to CEO of Michelin North America in 1990.[49][54] He presided over the restructuring of the company after its acquisition of the Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company.[39][55]

Post-privatisation Renault
In 1996, Ghosn became executive vice president in charge of purchasing, advanced research, engineering and development, powertrain operations, and manufacturing at Renault; and he was also in charge of Renault's South American division, located in the Mercosur.[39][56] Ghosn's radical restructuring of Renault successfully contributed to profitability of the company over 1997.[12][57] His reputation of successful performance under François Michelin was repeated under the first CEO of the freshly privatized Renault.

Nissan and the Renault–Nissan Alliance
In March 1999, Renault and Nissan formed the Renault–Nissan Alliance, and in May 1999 Renault purchased a 36.8% stake in Nissan.[58] While maintaining his roles at Renault, Ghosn joined Nissan as its chief operating officer (COO) in June 1999, became its president in June 2000, and was named chief executive officer (CEO) in June 2001.[39] When he joined the company, Nissan had a consolidated interest-bearing net automotive debt of more than $20 billion (more than 2 trillion yen),[48][59] and only three of its 46 models sold in Japan were generating a profit.[60] Reversing the company's sinking fortunes was considered nearly impossible.[61][62][63][64]

Ghosn's "Nissan Revival Plan", announced in October 1999, called for a return to profitability in fiscal year 2000, a profit margin in excess of 4.5% of sales by the end of fiscal year 2002, and a 50% reduction in the current level of debt by the end of fiscal year 2002.[65][66][67] Ghosn promised to resign if these goals were not met.[68] Ghosn's Nissan Revival Plan called for cutting 21,000 Nissan jobs (14% of total workforce), mostly in Japan; shutting five Japanese plants; reducing the number of suppliers and shareholdings; and auctioning off prized assets such as Nissan's aerospace unit.[65][69][70]

Ghosn was the fourth non-Japanese person to lead a Japanese automaker, after Mark Fields, Henry Wallace, and James Miller were appointed by Ford to run Mazda in the late 1990s.[71] In addition to cutting jobs, plants, and suppliers, Ghosn spearheaded major and dramatic structural and corporate-culture changes at Nissan. He defied Japanese business etiquette in various ways, including by eliminating seniority-based and age-based promotion, by changing lifetime employment from a guarantee to a desired goal for when the company achieved high performance, and by dismantling Nissan's keiretsu system – an interwoven web of parts suppliers with cross-holdings in Nissan.[72][73][74] When the Nissan Revival Plan was announced, the proposed dismantling of keiretsu earned Ghosn the nickname "keiretsu killer",[75] and The Wall Street Journal quoted a Dresdner Kleinwort Benson analyst in Tokyo as saying Ghosn might become a "target of public outrage" if Nissan threw former affiliates out of its supply chain.[76][77] Ghosn changed Nissan's official company language from Japanese to English, and included executives from Europe and North America in key global strategy sessions for the first time.[78][79]

In the first year of the Nissan Revival Plan, Nissan's consolidated net profit after tax climbed to $2.7 billion for fiscal year 2000,[80] from a consolidated net loss of $6.46 billion in the previous year.[81] Twelve months into his three-year turnaround plan, Nissan had returned to profitability, and within three years it was one of the industry's most profitable auto makers, with operating margins consistently above 9%—more than twice the industry average.[82] The goals of the Nissan Revival Plan were all reached before March 31, 2002.[83]

In May 2002, Ghosn announced his next set of goals for the company, "Nissan 180", a three-year plan for growth based on the numbers 1, 8, and 0: By the end of September 2005, Nissan planned to increase its global sales by one million vehicles; and by the spring of 2005, it was committed to achieving an operating margin of at least 8% and reducing its net automotive debt to zero.[84][85] These goals were all reached:[86] In the spring of 2003, Nissan announced that its net automotive debt was eliminated in fiscal year 2002.[87][88] Nissan's operating profit margin climbed to 11.1% in fiscal year 2003;[89] it had been 1.4% in fiscal year 1999.[90] In October 2005, Nissan announced that its annual sales from September 30, 2004, to September 30, 2005, were more than 3.67 million, up from the 2.6 million vehicles sold in the fiscal year ended March 2002
In May 2005, Ghosn was named president and chief executive officer of Renault.[39] When he assumed the CEO roles at both Renault and Nissan, Ghosn became the world's first person to run two companies on the Fortune Global 500 simultaneously.[93]

In 2005, billionaire investor Kirk Kerkorian acquired a 9.9% stake in General Motors (GM) and seated one of his representatives on the company's board, then urged GM to investigate a merger with Renault and Nissan with Ghosn as the new chairman of GM. In 2006, GM's embattled management rebuffed the takeover attempt, and by the end of the year, Kerkorian's Tracinda Corp. sold most of its GM stock.[94]

In 2006, Ford Motor Co. made Ghosn a formal offer to lead the company, according to the book American Icon: Alan Mulally and the Fight to Save Ford Motor Company by Bryce Hoffman.[95] Ghosn refused, reportedly saying the only way he would come to the struggling company was if he was named both the CEO and chairman of the board. Bill Ford Jr. refused to give up his chairmanship
In 2007, Ghosn led the Renault–Nissan Alliance into the mass-market zero-emission electric car market in a major way, and committed €4 billion (more than $5 billion) to the effort.[97][98][99][100] In 2008, he confirmed that Nissan–Renault would bring an "entire lineup" of zero-emission electric cars to the worldwide market by 2012.[101][102] In 2009, he told the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School of Business, "If you're going to let developing countries have as many cars as they want—and they're going to have as many cars as they want one way or another—there is no absolutely alternative but to go for zero emissions. And the only zero-emissions vehicle available today is electric ... So we decided to go for it."[103] The Nissan Leaf, an electric car billed as "the world's first affordable zero-emission car",[104][105] debuted in December 2010.[98][106] As of 2017, the Renault–Nissan Alliance is the world's electric vehicle leader, selling more than double the number of electric cars as Tesla, and the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling electric vehicle by a wide margin.[107]

Ghosn was a visible leader in recovery efforts after the Japanese earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011, one of the worst natural disasters in modern history.[108] On March 29, 2011, he made the first of several visits to the hard-hit Iwaki engine plant in Fukushima prefecture, 50 km (31 miles) from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant,[109][110][111] and at his direction Nissan restored full operations at the Iwaki factory well ahead of expectations.[112][113][114] He appeared on television in Japan to encourage optimism.[111][115][116][117] In May 2011, Ghosn remained committed to building at least 1 million of Nissan's cars and trucks in Japan annually.[118]

In June 2012, Ghosn was named deputy chairman of the board of directors of Russian automobile manufacturer AvtoVAZ.[119] In June 2013, he was appointed chairman of the Russian company, a position he retained through June 2016.[120][121][122][123][124] Renault had begun a strategic partnership with AvtoVAZ in 2008 by acquiring a 25% stake in the company;[125] this led to increasingly deeper partnerships between Renault–Nissan and AvtoVAZ,[126] ending in Renault–Nissan Alliance control of the Russian automaker in 2014.[127]

In February 2017, Ghosn announced he would step down as CEO of Nissan on April 1, 2017, while remaining chairman of the company.[25][128] Hiroto Saikawa, succeeded Ghosn at Nissan.[25] In November 2018, Renault owned 43.4% of Nissan, while Nissan owned non-voting shares equal to 15% of Renault's equity.[129][130]

Mitsubishi
In October 2016, Nissan completed the acquisition of a controlling 34% stake in Mitsubishi Motors. Ghosn became, in addition to his Renault–Nissan posts, chairman of Mitsubishi, with an aim to rehabilitate the automaker after a months-long scandal involving fuel-economy misrepresentation and consequent falling revenues. The Nissan–Mitsubishi partnership includes partnership in developing electric automobiles for Mitsubishi, and the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance creates the world's fourth-largest auto group, after Toyota, Volkswagen AG, and General Motors Co.[131][132][133]

Mitsubishi Motors board removed Ghosn from his role as chairman on November 26, 2018, following his arrest and ousting from Nissan for alleged financial misconduct.[30]

Advisorships
Ghosn served on the International Advisory Board of Brazilian bank Banco Itaú (a major party in the privatisation of Renault) until 2015.[134][135] He is also a member of the Advisory Board of Tsinghua University School of Economics and Management in Beijing.[136] He has received an honorary doctorate from American University of Beirut;[137] and he is a member of the Strategic Council, Saint Joseph University of Beirut.[138] In 2014 and 2015, he was elected president of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association.[139][140][141] He serves as governor of the World Economic Forum.[142]

Arrest in Tokyo and subsequent Nissan investigation
Initial arrest
On 19 November 2018, Tokyo District Prosecutors arrested Ghosn at 4:30 pm upon his re-entry into Japan aboard a private jet that had come from Lebanon,[143] for questioning over allegations of false accounting.[144][145][146][147] Ghosn's top aide Greg Kelly, a Nissan director and former head of human resources, was also arrested upon his arrival from the U.S. that day.[129]

On the same day, Nissan chief executive Hiroto Saikawa announced at a press conference that Ghosn had been dismissed from Nissan's board and would be stripped of executive rights at a meeting to be held on 22 November. Saikawa stressed that the dismissal was the result of an internal inquiry by Nissan.[148][145] Nissan Chief Executive Officer Hiroto Saikawa publicly alleged that Ghosn and Kelly under-reported their compensation (a violation of securities law) and used company assets for personal use.[149] While the allegations remained unproven in court, with due legal process pending, at the same news conference, Saikawa "expressed disappointment, indignation, and despair at Ghosn's conduct, which included using company funds for personal investments and misusing corporate assets" and also said, "This is an act that cannot be tolerated by the company ... It is sufficient grounds for his dismissal."[149]

Although the company did not provide details, reports in the Japanese media stated that Nissan was paying all or some of the costs at some amount of US$18 million for residences used by Ghosn in Rio de Janeiro, Beirut, Paris and Amsterdam, and that Ghosn charged family vacation expenses to the company.[147] The purchases of some of these residences and the payment of expenses were handled by a shell company named Zi-A Capital BV based in the Netherlands, which Kelly had instructed Nissan's board to set up to make venture investments at the end of 2010 (around the same time as Ghosn's divorce from his first wife and beginning of a relationship with his second wife).[129] Nissan funds were used to purchase Ghosn's Paris apartment in 2005, and Zi-A funds were used to purchase his $5 million beachfront Rio apartment in 2012 and his Beirut mansion, which, with renovations, cost over $15 million.[129] Nissan compliance auditors began trying to track Zi-A activity in 2014 but were stymied at first by the chain of shell companies used in Zi-A investments.[129]

In addition, to avoid reporting the full amount of his compensation in Nissan financials, as required by Japanese law beginning in 2010, Ghosn had Kelly structure complicated deferred payment plans which went unreported under an aggressive interpretation of the disclosure rules which Nissan's outside auditors had not signed off on, and which totaled around $80 million at the time of his arrest eight years later.[129] According to Nikkei reports, Ghosn told investigators that he instructed Kelly to handle the compensation reporting in a legal manner, and Kelly told investigators that he acted on advice from outside law firms and the Financial Services Agency in handling the reporting.[150][151] Leaks to the media said that Ghosn had planned to call a vote to fire Nissan CEO Saikawa and reinstate Kelly (who had semi-retired to the U.S. in 2015) to active service at the scheduled board meeting.[129]

Ghosn was detained at the Tokyo Detention House, under Japanese rules that allow suspects to be detained for up to 23 days without criminal charges being filed.[152] Ghosn and Kelly were reportedly arrested on information provided by an unidentified non-Japanese executive in Nissan's legal department, in the second deal ever struck under Japan's recently introduced plea bargaining system.[147] Charges were filed against Ghosn and Kelly on the underreporting of deferred compensation on 10 December, along with allegations of additional charges that restarted a 10-day holding period without bail.[129] Nissan also took control of the Rio and Beirut properties and changed the locks, which has led Ghosn's family to sue for access.[129]

Continued detention and new charges
On 21 December, Ghosn was re-arrested on suspicion of shifting to Nissan personal losses of US$16.6 million related to a personal swap contract in October 2008 (during the global financial crisis).[153] The introduction of those charges prevented Ghosn's release on bail later the same day, because the new charges permitted an additional 10–20 days of incarceration prior to a bail hearing.[153] Subsequent reporting linked this charge to Ghosn's dealings with Sheikh Khaled al-Juffali, the vice chairman of one of Saudi Arabia's largest conglomerates and majority owner of a company which owns half of a regional joint venture called Nissan Gulf, with the other half held by a wholly owned Nissan subsidiary.[154] In return for a personal letter of credit from Juffali to Ghosn during the 2008 crisis, which served as bank-demanded collateral for Ghosn's swap contract, Nissan indirectly paid $14.7 million from an internal discretionary fund known as the "CEO Reserve" to a wholly owned Juffali company in four installments between 2009 and 2012, although the internal documentation did not specify the ultimate recipient.[154] According to Tokyo prosecutors, Kelly was not involved in this transaction and so was released on bail on 25 December.[154]

Ghosn made his first public appearance after his arrest at an arraignment on Tuesday, 8 January 2019, where he asserted his innocence, making a statement in response to the main allegations against him; however, his bid to be released from prison on these charges was rejected.[155][156]

Ghosn's imprisonment was set to end on 11 January. That day, Ghosn was indicted on two additional charges: aggravated breach of trust and understating his income, once again extending his imprisonment.[157][158][32] As a result, he could remain in jail for months more before a trial takes place.[156] Two days later, Nissan's investigation allegedly found that, in addition to the underreporting of salary already charged, Ghosn had paid himself an undisclosed $8 million in 2018 from a Netherlands-based joint venture owned by Nissan and Mitsubishi that was set up in 2017, without the knowledge of either company's directors because Ghosn had the sole authority to dispense cash from the venture.[159]

Ghosn again appealed the denial of bail from 8 January and offered to meet greater restrictions and higher guarantees of appearance in return for his release, including wearing an ankle bracelet and posting his Nissan stock as collateral.[160] Additionally, on 14 January Ghosn's wife Carole published a letter that she wrote to Human Rights Watch protesting against his treatment in detainment.[130][161] Nevertheless, on 21 January, the Tokyo district court denied his appeal.[162]

Le Figaro[163][164] and CNN have reported with the words hostage justice.[165] In its report on the release of Carlos Ghosn, Financial Times stated that the Japanese judicial system is a country risk.[163][166]

Further developments
On 11 January,[167] José Muñoz, Nissan's chief performance officer and head of its China operations, resigned from the company, effective immediately.[168] Muñoz, considered to be a close ally to Ghosn and a possible successor as CEO of Renault and Nissan, had been a "person of interest" in Nissan's internal investigation, with which he was reported to be uncooperative.[168] One of Nissan's three independent directors opined that Nissan may simply eliminate the position of chairman and not replace Ghosn, a route previously taken by other scandal-plagued Japanese companies.[169] The Reuters Japan news service reported that Nissan may file suit against Ghosn personally.[161][170]

At first the French government and Renault had been reported to be standing behind Ghosn during his imprisonment, on the presumption that Ghosn is innocent until proven guilty.[32] However, France's financial minister Bruno Le Maire stated on 16 January that Renault may seek a new CEO to replace Ghosn due to his continued incarceration.[161][130] Renault also released a statement that day stating that the company is "actively working to find the best solution for the future governance of the group, with a view to preserving the company's interests and strengthening the Renault–Nissan Alliance".[161] As reported by The New York Times, Renault's appointment of a successor might not be due to Renault changing its view about his innocence but rather an acknowledgement of his inability to perform his duties from a Japanese prison.[130] Because Renault relies on significant financial contributions from Nissan under the Renault–Nissan Alliance, media reports say that Renault is worried that Nissan may be using the power vacuum at Renault to reshape the alliance's balance of power.[130][171] As a result, Ghosn resigned as chairman and CEO of Renault on 24 January 2019.[33]

On 30 January, Ghosn said the charges were "plot and treason" by executives at Nissan who opposed the relationship with Renault and a future plan that was in the works to integrate Nissan, Mitsubishi and Renault.[172] In mid-February, Ghosn's lawyer Motonari Otsuru stepped down and was replaced by Jun'ichirō Hironaka [ja], who has a record of persistence in obtaining acquittals in a number of high-profile cases.[173]

In early March, Ghosn was granted a request for bail in a Tokyo court. The court set his bail at 1 billion yen, (about US$9 million). This was his third bail request, and the first by his new legal team under Hironaka. Hironaka has stated that it would be "impossible" for him to front the cash to be released on bail the same day due to issues with the bank used to pay the bail and an appeal by the prosecutor's office.[174][175] The bail approval was subject to stringent controls, such as not traveling abroad. He was released on March 6, 2019. Under strict bail conditions, Ghosn remained at a house, under 24-hour camera surveillance, with no internet access.[176][177]

On April 3, Ghosn tweeted that he was "ready to tell the truth" and that he would hold a conference on April 11.[178] He was re-arrested for the fourth time early on April 4 over new suspicions of financial misconduct concerning alleged dealings via Oman.[179] Ghosn released a statement claiming the arrest was "outrageous and arbitrary".[180] Until that point in time he had been held for 108 days since he was first arrested in November 2018.

On 8 April 2019, during an extraordinary shareholders meeting, Nissan shareholders voted to remove Carlos Ghosn from the company board.[181] Shareholders also voted to remove Ghosn's former right-hand man Greg Kelly, and to appoint Renault chairman Jean-Dominique Senard as a director.[34]

On 9 April, Ghosn posted a YouTube video, where he publicly stated that he was "innocent of all the accusations that came around these charges that are all biased, taken out of context, twisted in a way to paint a personage of greed, and a personage of dictatorship". He also claimed that the payments to Juffali were meant to help Nissan fix a dispute with a local distributor, and to open a bank contract to convert his salary from yen to US dollars, in order to avoid currency swings.[182]

The Japanese court rejected an appeal filed by Ghosn's lawyers, and approved an initial 10 days detention for Ghosn, until April 22.[183] He was released in late April, but confined to strict house arrest, including having no contact with his wife for four months.[184]

In June 2019 French finance minister Bruno Le Maire said on TV that Carlos Ghosn could face legal in action in France after finding out about 11 million euros of dubious expenses.[185] Prosecutors in the district of Nanterre west of Paris stated that anti-fraud police had searched his residence in the town of L'Étang-la-Ville for evidence.[186] In July Renault's headquarters in Boulogne-Billancourt were searched by 20 police personnel in relation to this case.[187]

July 2019 saw Carlos Ghosn take action against French mass-media for libel.[citation needed]

In August Carole Ghosn appealed to President Emmanuel Macron of France to intercede on behalf of her husband with Japanese leader Shinzo Abe at the 45th G7 summit held from August 24–26[188][189] at the French town of Biarritz.[184]

Escape from Japan
On 30 December 2019, numerous media outlets reported that Ghosn fled Japan and arrived in Beirut, Lebanon.[190][191] Ghosn later confirmed these reports through a statement released by his press representative in New York.[192] In his statement, Ghosn claimed that he would "no longer be held hostage by a rigged Japanese justice system where guilt is presumed, discrimination is rampant and basic human rights are denied," adding that he did not flee justice, but "escaped injustice and political persecution."[192] A member of Ghosn's defense team in Japan said that he was "surprised and baffled" by Ghosn's departure.[193]

Following Ghosn's arrival in Lebanon, a Tokyo court granted a request by Japanese prosecutors to revoke his bail.[193] While Japan and Lebanon are both members of Interpol and have had diplomatic relations since 1954,[194] there is no extradition agreement between the two countries.[190]

Personal life
By his first marriage to Rita Kordahi in 1984, Ghosn is the father of four grown children: Caroline, Nadine, Maya and Anthony.[195] They divorced in 2012.[129] In May 2016, Ghosn married Carole Nahas and, a few months later in October, threw a large-scale party at the Grand Trianon of the Palace of Versailles, in the outskirts of Paris, to celebrate both the wedding and Carole's 50th birthday.[196] He is reported by several Japanese media to have six private residences: in Tokyo, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Amsterdam, Beirut and New York.[197][198]

Ghosn, whom Forbes magazine called "the hardest-working man in the brutally competitive global car business",[49] splits his time between Paris and Tokyo and as of 2006 logged roughly 150,000 miles in airplanes per year.[49] Japanese media have called him "Seven-Eleven" ("work very hard from early in the morning till late at night").[77] He holds Brazilian, French, and Lebanese citizenships.[195] He has been noted for his direct, no-nonsense, results-oriented and execution-oriented style in business strategy meetings,[49] but also for his interest in resolving problems from within a company by listening to workers and by cross-functional and cross-cultural team groupings.[74]

Ghosn is multilingual, speaking four languages fluently: French, Portuguese, English, and Arabic, and he has also studied Japanese.[52][199] He maintains ties to Lebanon, where he lived for 10 years and where he completed his primary and secondary education. He is a partner in Ixsir, a winery in the northern coastal town of Batroun, Lebanon.[200] In 2012 he was named to the Honorary Board of the American Foundation of Saint George Hospital in Beirut.[201][202]

Ghosn was hailed as a potential presidential candidate in Lebanon.[203][204] In a June 2011 survey by life-insurance company AXA, Ghosn was ranked No. 7 in a random poll asking Japanese people, "Which celebrity do you want to run Japan?" (Barack Obama was No. 9, and Prime Minister Naoto Kan was No. 19.)[205][206][207][208] He has so far declined such overtures, saying he has "no political ambitions".[203]

Ghosn's lawyers have stated he has chronic kidney disease which they claim was worsened by his lack of access to proper treatment while imprisoned.[209]

In the media
Beginning in November 2001, Ghosn's life story was turned into a superhero comic book series in Japan, titled The True Story of Carlos Ghosn, in the manga comic book Big Comic Superior.[210] The series was published as a book in 2002.[77][211]

Ghosn is the subject of a number of books in English, Japanese, and French. In English, he wrote a best-selling business book called Shift: Inside Nissan's Historic Revival.[212] He was the subject of another business book called Turnaround: How Carlos Ghosn Rescued Nissan by David Magee.[213] He also provided strategic business commentary and on-the-job lessons to aspiring managers in a book called The Ghosn Factor: 24 Inspiring Lessons From Carlos Ghosn, the Most Successful Transnational CEO by Miguel Rivas-Micoud.[214]

Awards and recognition
As a result of his achievements, Ghosn has had numerous awards and honors bestowed upon him. Some of these include:

In 2001, he topped TIME Magazine's list of Global Influentials, beating Bill Gates and several other globally renowned businessmen.[215]
In 2001, he was named Father of the Year by a Japanese community group.[216]
In 2002, he was appointed a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour (Knight of the Legion of Honour) by the French government.[217]
In 2002 Fortune awarded him Asia Businessman of the Year.[14][15]
In 2003, he was named Man of the Year by Fortune magazine's Asian edition.[17]
In 2003 Fortune listed him as one of the 10 most powerful business leaders outside the U.S.[16]
In 2004, he became the first foreign business leader to receive the prestigious Blue Ribbon Medal from Emperor Akihito of Japan.[218]
In 2004, he was added to the Automotive Hall of Fame.[219]
In 2004, he was also added to the Japan Automotive Hall of Fame.[220]
In 2006, Ghosn was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.[221]
In 2010, CEO Quarterly magazine listed Ghosn as one of the "Most Respected CEOs"[222]
In 2011, CNBC listed Ghosn as Asia Business Leader of the Year.[223]
In 2012, Ghosn was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite, an honorific designation to civilians in recognition of services that benefit Morocco.[224]
In 2012, Ghosn received the Japan Society Award.[225]
In 2012, Ghosn became the first person in the auto industry, and the fourth overall, to win a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Strategic Management Society, a non-profit group that promotes ethical and strategic business stewardship.[226]
In 2012, Ghosn was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, an honorific designation to civilians in recognition of services that benefit Spain.[227]
In 2013, he was appointed an International Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering.[228]
In 2017, Lebanon's national post office, LibanPost, unveiled a collectable stamp honoring Carlos Ghosn

Civil partnership

Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom are a form of civil union granted under the Civil Partnership Act 2004, allowing couples irrespective of sex to obtain essentially the same rights and responsibilities as civil marriage.[1] Civil partners are entitled to the same property rights as married couples, the same exemption as married couples on inheritance tax, social security and pension benefits, and also the ability to obtain parental responsibility for a partner's children,[2] as well as responsibility for reasonable maintenance of one's partner and their children, tenancy rights, full life insurance recognition, next of kin rights in hospitals, and others. There is a formal process for dissolving partnerships akin to divorce.

The Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 legalised same-sex marriage in England and Wales in March 2014, although civil partnerships remained available. The Act also granted those in a civil partnership the ability to convert their partnership into a marriage. The equivalent Marriage and Civil Partnership (Scotland) Act 2014 does not grant that ability to couples in Scotland, but includes provisions for its later introduction, and does permit those already in civil partnership with one another to marry without first dissolving the mutual civil partnership.

In February 2018, the United Kingdom and Scottish governments began reviewing civil partnerships.[3] In June 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that allowing only same-sex couples to enter a civil partnership is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights.[4] The UK Government later pledged to allow opposite-sex couples in England and Wales to enter into civil partnerships,[5] and legislation enabling this passed the Parliament in March 2019.[6][7] Opposite-sex couples have been able to enter into civil partnerships in England and Wales since 2 December 2019.[8] They will become available to opposite-sex couples in Northern Ireland from 13 January 2020, whilst in Scotland legislation is currently pending in the Scottish Parliament.
Law and procedure
A civil partnership is a relationship between two people, formed when they register as civil partners of each other, which ends only on death, dissolution or annulment. Part 2 of the Act relates to England and Wales, Part 3 to Scotland and Part 4 to Northern Ireland.

Formation and registration
A civil partnership is formed once both individuals have signed the civil partnership document in the presence of a registrar and two witnesses.[11]

Under the standard procedure, before registration, each party will usually have to give notice to the appropriate authority. Each party must have resided in the British jurisdiction in which they intend to register, (England and Wales or Northern Ireland) for at least seven days immediately preceding the giving of notice and there will, in most cases, be a fifteen-day waiting period after notice is given. A civil partnership in Wales (Welsh: Partneriaeth Sifil) may be conducted either in English or, provided that both registering parties, the registrar and witnesses are able to understand and write in the Welsh language, in Welsh. Civil Partnership documents issued in Wales (regardless of the registering language) follow a standardised bilingual English and Welsh format.

In Scotland there is no minimum residence requirement to contract a valid partnership. During the waiting period, the proposed partnership is publicised and anyone may make a formal objection. If there is such an objection, the proposed civil partnership cannot be formed unless the objection is withdrawn or if the registration authority is satisfied that the objection ought not to prevent the formation of the civil partnership. Provided no objection has been recorded, or any recorded objections have been cleared, the registration authority must issue a civil partnership schedule at the request of either party upon the expiration of the waiting period. The civil partnership must then be registered within twelve months of the notice first being given.

Specific registration procedures apply to certain special circumstances, e.g. concerning the housebound, detained persons and those seriously ill and in danger of death.

Eligibility
Each party to the civil partnership must be at least 16 years of age. Anyone below 18 years of age will usually need parental consent, except in Scotland where such consent is not required. Furthermore, the parties to the proposed partnership must not be within the prohibited degrees of relationship specified in part 1 of schedule 1, paragraphs 1 and 2 of the Act (paragraph 3 was not brought into force [12] following a ruling from the European Court of Human Rights against similar provisions for marriage).[13] Any party who is already in a marriage or a civil partnership is ineligible to register.

Where permitted, civil partnerships may be registered at British embassies or consulates-general. As of October 2009, the British Embassy in France listed twenty eight as being authorised to hold civil partnerships.[14] For such registrations, at least one partner must be a British citizen. Overseas couples wishing to register their partnership in the UK, must reside in the country for seven days prior to application for the partnership, and wait a further fifteen days before the civil partnership may be formed.

Recent developments
It is prohibited for civil partnerships to include religious readings, music or symbols.[15] It was originally prohibited for the ceremonies to take place in religious venues. On 17 February 2011, Her Majesty's Government announced that, as the result of the passing of the Equality Act 2010, it would bring forward the necessary measures to remove the latter restriction in England and Wales, although religious venues would not be compelled to offer civil partnerships. This was implemented by The Marriages and Civil Partnerships (Approved Premises) (Amendment) Regulations 2011. On 26 September 2011, the Home Office published the following statement on its website:

A public consultation to consider how to make civil marriage available to same-sex couples will begin in March 2012, the government announced today.

As part of its commitment to advancing equality for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals the government announced in February this year its intention to look at how legislation could develop on equal civil marriage. Minister for Equalities Lynne Featherstone said:

"I am delighted to confirm that early next year, this government will begin a formal consultation on equal civil marriage for same-sex couples. This would allow us to make any legislative changes before the end of this Parliament. We will be working closely with all those who have an interest in the area to understand their views ahead of the formal consultation."

The consultation will only cover civil marriage for same sex couples — not religious marriage.[16]

It falls within the respective jurisdictions of the Scottish Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly to decide whether or not to remove the restrictions in the areas of civil partnerships and marriage. From September–December 2011, the Scottish Government held a consultation on not only removing religious prohibitions for civil partnerships but also legalising same-sex marriage within that country.[17] In the foreword to the consultation document, Deputy First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon stated

"The Scottish Government is choosing to make its initial views clear at the outset of this consultation. We tend towards the view that religious ceremonies for civil partnerships should no longer be prohibited and that same sex marriage should be introduced so that same sex couples have the option of getting married if that is how they wish to demonstrate their commitment to each other. We also believe that no religious body or its celebrants should be required to carry out same sex marriages or civil partnership ceremonies."[18]

Unlike the English and Welsh Consultation due to begin in March 2012, the Consultation for Scotland dealt with the issue of same sex marriage in a religious context. On 10 December 2011, The Scotsman newspaper reported that some 50,000 responses had been received and that a government spokesperson stated that an analysis would be published in the spring of 2012.[19] Despite the legalisation of same-sex marriage by the Scottish Parliament in February 2014, the Government of Scotland has yet to decide whether or not to open civil partnerships to opposite sex couples. Other aspects of Scotland's Marriage and Civil Partnership Act which legalised same-sex marriage in Scotland and relate to civil partnership include:[20]

Possible tests for religious and belief bodies to meet when solemnising marriages or registering civil partnerships, in light of increasing concerns over sham and forced marriages
Introducing religious and belief ceremonies to register civil partnerships
In February 2017 the UK court of appeal ruled against a heterosexual who wanted a civil partnership.[21] In June 2018, the ban on heterosexual couples obtaining a civil partnership was ruled discriminatory

Hogmanay

Hogmanay (Scots: [ˌhɔɡməˈneː];[1] English: /ˌhɒɡməˈneɪ/ HOG-mə-NAY[2]) is the Scots word for the last day of the year and is synonymous with the celebration of the New Year (Gregorian calendar) in the Scottish manner. It is normally followed by further celebration on the morning of New Year's Day (1 January) or, in some cases, 2 January—a Scottish bank holiday.

The origins of Hogmanay are unclear, but it may be derived from Norse and Gaelic observances. Customs vary throughout Scotland, and usually include gift-giving and visiting the homes of friends and neighbours, with special attention given to the first-foot, the first guest of the new year.
Etymology
The etymology of the word is obscure. The earliest proposed etymology comes from the 1693 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence, which held that the term was a corruption of the Greek agía míne (αγία μήνη), or "holy month".[3] The three main modern theories derive it from a French, Norse or Gaelic root.

The word is first recorded in a Latin entry in 1443 in the West Riding of Yorkshire as hagnonayse.[4] The first appearance in English came in 1604 in the records of Elgin, as hagmonay.[5] Subsequent 17th-century spellings include Hagmena (1677),[4] Hogmynae night (1681),[4] and Hagmane (1693) in an entry of the Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence.[3][6]

Although "Hogmanay" is currently the predominant spelling and pronunciation, a number of variant spellings and pronunciations have been recorded, including:[7]

Hoghmanay[6]
Hagman(a)e[7]
Hagmonay[7]
Hagmonick[6]
Hanginay (Roxburghshire)[6]
Hangmanay[7]
Hogernoany (Shetland)[6]
Hogminay/Hogmenay/Hogmynae[6]
Hoguemennay[6]
Huggeranohni (Shetland)[6]
Hu(i)gmanay[7]
with the first syllable variously being /hɔg/, /hog/, /hʌg/, /hʌug/ or /haŋ/.

Possible French etymologies
It may have been introduced to Middle Scots via French. The most commonly cited explanation is a derivation from the northern French dialectal word hoguinané, or variants such as hoginane, hoginono and hoguinettes, those being derived from 16th century Middle French aguillanneuf meaning either a gift given at New Year, a children's cry for such a gift, or New Year's Eve itself.[7][8] Compare also the apparent Spanish cognate aguinaldo/aguilando, with a suggested Latin derivation of hoc in anno "in this year."[9]

This explanation is supported by a children's tradition, observed up to the 1960s in some parts of Scotland at least, of visiting houses in their locality on New Year's Eve and requesting and receiving small treats such as sweets or fruit. The second element would appear to be l'an neuf (the New Year), with some sources suggesting a druidical origin of the practice overall.[10] Compare those to Norman hoguinané and the obsolete customs in Jersey of crying ma hodgîngnole, and in Guernsey of asking for an oguinane, for a New Year gift (see also La Guiannee). In Québec, "la guignolée" was a door-to-door collection for the poor.[11]

Other suggestions include au gui mener ("lead to the mistletoe"),[12] à gueux mener ('bring to the beggars'),[12] au gui l'an neuf ('at the mistletoe the new year', or (l')homme est né ('(the) man is born').[13]

Possible Goidelic etymologies
The word may have come from the Goidelic languages. Frazer and Kelley report a Manx new-year song that begins with the line To-night is New Year's Night, Hogunnaa but did not record the full text in Manx.[14][15] Kelley himself uses the spelling Og-u-naa... Tro-la-la[16] whereas other sources parse this as hog-un-naa and give the modern Manx form as Hob dy naa.[17] Manx dictionaries though give Hop-tu-Naa (Manx pronunciation: [hopʰ tθu neː]), generally glossing it as "Hallowe'en",[18][19] same as many of the more Manx-specific folklore collections.[20]

In this context it is also recorded that in the south of Scotland (for example Roxburghshire), there is no ⟨m⟩, the word thus being Hunganay, which could suggest the ⟨m⟩ is intrusive.[17]

Another theory occasionally encountered is a derivation from the phrase thog mi an èigh/eugh ([hok mi ˈɲeː], "I raised the cry"), which resembles Hogmanay in pronunciation and was part of the rhymes traditionally recited at New Year[21] but it is unclear if this is simply a case of folk etymology.

Overall, Gaelic consistently refers to the New Year's Eve as Oidhche na Bliadhn(a) Ùir(e) ("the Night of the New Year") and Oidhche Challainn ("the Night of the Calends").[22][23][24]

Possible Norse etymologies
Some authors reject both the French and Goidelic theories, and instead suggest that the ultimate source both for the Norman French, Scots, and Goidelic variants of this word have a common Norse root.[25] It is suggested that the full forms

"Hoginanaye-Trollalay/Hogman aye, Troll a lay" (with a Manx cognate Hop-tu-Naa, Trolla-laa)
"Hogmanay, Trollolay, give us of your white bread and none of your gray"[26]
invoke the hill-men (Icelandic haugmenn, cf Anglo-Saxon hoghmen) or "elves" and banishes the trolls into the sea (Norse á læ "into the sea").[25][27] Repp furthermore makes a link between "Trollalay/Trolla-laa" and the rhyme recorded in Percy's Relics: "Trolle on away, trolle on awaye. Synge heave and howe rombelowe trolle on away", which he reads as a straightforward invocation of troll-banning.[27][28]

Origins
The roots of Hogmanay perhaps reach back to the celebration of the winter solstice among the Norse,[29] as well as incorporating customs from the Gaelic celebration of Samhain. The Vikings celebrated Yule,[29] which later contributed to the Twelve Days of Christmas, or the "Daft Days" as they were sometimes called in Scotland. Christmas was not celebrated as a festival and Hogmanay was the more traditional celebration in Scotland.[13] This may have been a result of the Protestant Reformation after which Christmas was seen as "too Papist".[30]

Customs
There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay. The most widespread national custom is the practice of first-footing, which starts immediately after midnight. This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, shortbread, whisky, and black bun (a rich fruit cake), intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder. Food and drink (as the gifts) are then given to the guests. This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day (although modern days see people visiting houses well into the middle of January). The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year. Traditionally, tall, dark-haired men are preferred as the first-foot
An example of a local Hogmanay custom is the fireball swinging that takes place in Stonehaven, Aberdeenshire, in northeast Scotland. This involves local people making up "balls" of chicken wire filled with old newspaper, sticks, rags, and other dry flammable material up to a diameter of 2 feet (0.61 m), each attached to about 3 feet (0.91 m) of wire, chain or nonflammable rope. As the Old Town House bell sounds to mark the new year, the balls are set alight and the swingers set off up the High Street from the Mercat Cross to the Cannon and back, swinging the burning balls around their heads as they go
At the end of the ceremony, any fireballs that are still burning are cast into the harbour. Many people enjoy this display, and large crowds flock to see it,[32] with 12,000 attending the 2007/2008 event.[33] In recent years, additional attractions have been added to entertain the crowds as they wait for midnight, such as fire poi, a pipe band, street drumming and a firework display after the last fireball is cast into the sea. The festivities are now streamed live over the Internet.[32] Another example of a pagan fire festival is the burning the clavie in the town of Burghead in Moray.[citation needed]

In the east coast fishing communities and Dundee, first-footers once carried a decorated herring. And in Falkland in Fife, local men marched in torchlight procession to the top of the Lomond Hills as midnight approached. Bakers in St Andrews baked special cakes for their Hogmanay celebration (known as "Cake Day") and distributed them to local children.[citation needed]

Institutions also had their own traditions. For example, amongst the Scottish regiments, officers waited on the men at special dinners while at the bells, the Old Year is piped out of barrack gates. The sentry then challenges the new escort outside the gates: "Who goes there?" The answer is "The New Year, all's well."[34]

An old custom in the Highlands – which has survived to a small extent and seen some degree of revival[citation needed] – is to celebrate Hogmanay with the saining (Scots for 'protecting, blessing') of the household and livestock. Early on New Year's morning, householders drink and then sprinkle 'magic water' from 'a dead and living ford' around the house (a 'dead and living ford' refers to a river ford that is routinely crossed by both the living and the dead). After the sprinkling of the water in every room, on the beds and all the inhabitants, the house is sealed up tight and branches of juniper are set on fire and carried throughout the house and byre. The juniper smoke is allowed to thoroughly fumigate the buildings until it causes sneezing and coughing among the inhabitants. Then all the doors and windows are flung open to let in the cold, fresh air of the new year. The woman of the house then administers 'a restorative' from the whisky bottle, and the household sits down to its New Year breakfast.[35]

"Auld Lang Syne"
The Hogmanay custom of singing "Auld Lang Syne" has become common in many countries. "Auld Lang Syne" is a Scots poem by Robert Burns, based on traditional and other earlier sources. It is now common to sing this in a circle of linked arms that are crossed over one another as the clock strikes midnight for New Year's Day, though it is only intended that participants link arms at the beginning of the final verse, before rushing in to the centre as a group.[36]

In the media
Between 1957 and 1968, a New Year's Eve television programme, The White Heather Club, was presented to herald in the Hogmanay celebrations. The show was presented by Andy Stewart who always began by singing "Come in, come in, it's nice to see you...." The show always ended with Andy Stewart and the cast singing, "Haste ye Back":

Haste ye back, we loue you dearly,
Call again you're welcome here.
May your days be free from sorrow,
And your friends be ever near.

May the paths o'er which you wander,
Be to you a joy each day.
Haste ye back we loue you dearly,
Haste ye back on friendship's way.

The performers were Jimmy Shand and band, Ian Powrie and his band, Scottish country dancers: Dixie Ingram and the Dixie Ingram Dancers, Joe Gordon Folk Four, James Urquhart, Ann & Laura Brand, Moira Anderson & Kenneth McKellar. All the male dancers and Andy Stewart wore kilts, and the female dancers wore long white dresses with tartan sashes. Following the demise of the White Heather Club, Andy Stewart continued to feature regularly in TV Hogmanay shows until his retirement.[37] His last appearance was in 1992.

In the 1980s comedian Andy Cameron presented the Hogmanay Show (on STV in 1983 and 1984 and from 1985 to 1990 on BBC Scotland) while Peter Morrison presented the show A Highland Hogmanay on STV/Grampian, axed in 1993.

For many years, a staple of New Year's Eve television programming in Scotland was the comedy sketch show Scotch and Wry, featuring the comedian Rikki Fulton, which invariably included a hilarious monologue from him as the gloomy Reverend I.M. Jolly.

Since 1993, the programmes that have been mainstays on BBC Scotland on Hogmanay have been Hogmanay Live and Jonathan Watson's football-themed sketch comedy show, Only an Excuse?.

Presbyterian influence
The 1693 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence contained one of the first mentions of the holiday in official church records.[3] Hogmanay was treated with general disapproval. Still, in Scotland Hogmanay and New Year's Day are as important as Christmas Eve and Christmas Day.

Although Christmas Day held its normal religious nature in Scotland amongst its Catholic and Episcopalian communities, the Presbyterian national church, the Church of Scotland, discouraged the celebration of Christmas for nearly 400 years; it only became a public holiday in Scotland in 1958. Conversely, 1 and 2 January are public holidays and Hogmanay still is associated with as much celebration as Christmas in Scotland.


A Viking longship is burnt during Edinburgh's annual Hogmanay celebrations (though Edinburgh has no historical connection with those Norse who invaded Scotland).
Major celebrations

زياد علي

زياد علي محمد