الأحد، 5 أبريل 2020

Palm Sunday

Palm Sunday

Palm Sunday is a Christian moveable feast that falls on the Sunday before Easter. The feast commemorates Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, an event mentioned in each of the four canonical Gospels.[3] Palm Sunday marks the first day of Holy Week, the last week of the Christian solemn season of Lent that precedes the arrival of Eastertide.[4][5]

In most liturgical churches Palm Sunday is celebrated by the blessing and distribution of palm branches or the branches of other native trees representing the palm branches the crowd scattered in front of Christ as he rode into Jerusalem. The difficulty of procuring palms in unfavorable climates led to their substitution with branches of native trees, including box, olive, willow, and yew. The Sunday was often named after these substitute trees, as in Yew Sunday, or by the general term Branch Sunday.

Many churches of mainstream Christian denominations, including the Lutheran, Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, Moravian and Reformed traditions, distribute palm branches to their congregations during their Palm Sunday liturgies. Christians take these palms, which are often blessed by clergy, to their homes where they hang them alongside Christian art (especially crosses and crucifixes) or keep them in their Bibles or devotionals.[6] In the period preceding the next year's Lent, known as Shrovetide, churches often place a basket in their narthex to collect these palms, which are then ritually burned on Shrove Tuesday to make the ashes to be used on the following day, Ash Wednesday, which is the first day of Lent
In the accounts of the four canonical Gospels, Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place a week before his resurrection.[9][10][11][12] Only the Gospel[13] of John shows a timeline of the event, dated six days before the Passover (John 12:1).

Before this, Jesus talked to two of his disciples, taking to himself the ancient Greek word of Lord (Κύριος, trasl. Kýrios),[14] written with a capital letter in the original text, as a proper noun.
The raising of Lazarus is mentioned only by the Gospel of John, in the previous chapter. The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches which follows the Byzantine Rite, commemorate it on Lazarus Saturday, following the text of the Gospel. In fact, the Jewish calendar dates begin at sundown of the night beforehand, and conclude at nightfall.[16]

Christian theologians believe that the symbolism is captured prophetically in the Old Testament: Zechariah 9:9 "The Coming of Zion's King – See, your king comes to you, righteous and victorious, lowly and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey", which is quoted in the Gospels. It suggests that Jesus was declaring he was the King of Israel, to the anger of the Sanhedrin.

According to the Gospels, Jesus Christ rode on a donkey into Jerusalem, and the celebrating people there laid down their cloaks and small branches of trees in front of him, singing part of Psalm 118: 25–26 – Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord. We bless you from the house of the Lord.[2][9][10][11]

The symbolism of the donkey may refer to the Eastern tradition that it is an animal of peace, unlike the horse which is the animal of war.[1] A king would have ridden a horse when he was bent on war and ridden a donkey to symbolize his arrival in peace. Jesus' entry to Jerusalem would have thus symbolized his entry as the Prince of Peace, not as a war-waging king.[1][2] Thus there have been two different meanings (or more levels of biblical hermeneutics): an historical meaning, truly happening according to the Gospels, and a secondary meaning in the symbolism.
In Luke 19:41 as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, he looks at the city and weeps over it (an event known as Flevit super illam in Latin), foretelling his coming Passion and the suffering that awaits the city in the events of the destruction of the Second Temple.

In many lands in the ancient Near East, it was customary to cover in some way the path of someone thought worthy of the highest honour. The Hebrew Bible (2 Kings 9:13) reports that Jehu, son of Jehoshaphat, was treated this way. Both the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John report that people gave Jesus this form of honour. In the synoptics the people are described as laying their garments and cut rushes on the street, whereas John specifies fronds of palm (Greek phoinix). In Jewish tradition, the palm is one of the Four Species carried for Sukkot, as prescribed for rejoicing at Leviticus 23:40.

In the Greco-Roman culture of the Roman Empire, which strongly influenced Christian tradition, the palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory. It became the most common attribute of the goddess Nike or Victoria.[17][18][19] For contemporary Roman observers, the procession would have evoked the Roman triumph,[20] when the triumphator laid down his arms and wore the toga, the civilian garment of peace that might be ornamented with emblems of the palm.[21] Although the Epistles of Paul refer to Jesus as "triumphing", the entry into Jerusalem may not have been regularly pictured as a triumphal procession in this sense before the 13th century.[22] In ancient Egyptian religion, the palm was carried in funeral processions and represented eternal life. The martyr's palm was later used as a symbol of Christian martyrs and their spiritual victory or triumph over death.[23] In Revelation 7:9, the white-clad multitude stand before the throne and Lamb holding palm branches.

Observance in the liturgy
Eastern and Oriental Christianity
Palm Sunday, or the "Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem" as it may be called in Orthodox Churches, is one of the Twelve Great Feasts of the liturgical year. The day before Palm Sunday, Lazarus Saturday, believers often prepare palm fronds by knotting them into crosses in preparation for the procession on Sunday. The hangings and vestments in the church are changed to a festive color – most commonly green.

The Troparion of the Feast (a short hymn) indicates that the resurrection of Lazarus is a prefiguration of Jesus's own Resurrection:

O Christ our God
When Thou didst raise Lazarus from the dead before Thy Passion,
Thou didst confirm the resurrection of the universe.
Wherefore, we like children,
carry the banner of triumph and victory,
and we cry to Thee, O Conqueror of love,
Hosanna in the highest!
Blessed is He that cometh
in the Name of the Lord.

In the Russian Orthodox Church, Ukrainian Orthodox Church, Ukrainian Catholic Church, Ruthenian Catholic Church, Polish, Bavarian and Austrian Roman Catholics, and various other Eastern European peoples, the custom developed of using pussy willow instead of palm fronds because the latter are not readily available that far north. There is no canonical requirement as to what kind of branches must be used, so some Orthodox believers use olive branches. Whatever the kind, these branches are blessed and distributed together with candles either during the All-Night Vigil on the Eve of the Feast (Saturday night), or before the Divine Liturgy on Sunday morning. The Great Entrance of the Divine Liturgy commemorates the "Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem", so the meaningfulness of this moment is punctuated on Palm Sunday as everyone stands, holding their branches and lit candles. The faithful take these branches and candles home with them after the liturgy, and keep them in their icon corner as an evloghia (blessing).

In Russia, donkey walk processions took place in different cities, but most importantly in Novgorod and, from 1558 until 1693, in Moscow. These were prominently featured in testimonies by foreign witnesses and mentioned in contemporary Western maps of the city. The Patriarch of Moscow, representing Christ, rode on a "donkey" (actually a horse draped in white cloth); the Tsar of Russia humbly led the procession on foot. Originally, Moscow processions began inside the Kremlin and terminated at Trinity Church, now known as Saint Basil's Cathedral, but in 1658 Patriarch Nikon reversed the order of procession. Peter I in the 1720s, as a part of his nationalisation of the church, terminated the custom; it has been occasionally recreated in the 21st century.

In Oriental Orthodox churches, palm fronds are distributed at the front of the church at the sanctuary steps. In India the sanctuary itself is strewn with marigolds, and the congregation proceeds through and outside the church.

Queens speech

Queens speech

The State Opening of Parliament is an event which formally marks the beginning of a session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It includes a speech from the throne known as the Queen's Speech (or the King's Speech). The State Opening is an elaborate ceremony showcasing British history, culture and contemporary politics to large crowds and television viewers.

It takes place in the House of Lords chamber on the first day of a new session, which is usually in May or June, and traditionally in November, but can occur at any time of year depending on the timing of General Elections and parliamentary session start dates. It takes place in front of both Houses of Parliament. The monarch, wearing the Imperial State Crown, reads a speech that has been prepared by his or her government outlining its plans for that parliamentary year. In 1974, when two general elections were held, there were two State Openings.

Queen Elizabeth II has opened every session of Parliament since her accession, except in 1959 and 1963 when she was pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward respectively. Those two sessions were opened by Lords Commissioners, headed by the Archbishop of Canterbury (Geoffrey Fisher in 1959 and Michael Ramsey in 1963), empowered by the Queen. The Lord Chancellor (Viscount Kilmuir in 1959 and Lord Dilhorne in 1963) read the Queen's Speech on those occasions.
Significance
The State Opening of Parliament is a ceremony loaded with historical ritual and symbolic significance for the governance of the United Kingdom. In one place are assembled the members of all three branches of government, of which the Monarch is the authority and nominal head in each part: the Crown-in-Parliament, (the Queen, together with the House of Commons and the House of Lords), constitutes the legislature; the Queen-in-Council, Her Majesty's Ministers (who are members of one or other House, and members of Her Majesty's Privy Council) constitute the executive; the Queen-on-the-Bench, consisting of Her Majesty's Judges, although not members of either House, are summoned to attend and represent the judiciary. Therefore, the State Opening demonstrates the governance of the United Kingdom but also the separation of powers. The importance of international relations is also represented through the presence in the Chamber of the corps diplomatique.

Sequence of events
The ceremonial surrounding the opening of parliament can be broken down into several parts:

Searching of the cellars
First, the cellars of the Palace of Westminster are searched by the Yeomen of the Guard in order to prevent a modern-day Gunpowder Plot. The Plot of 1605 involved a failed attempt by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert Catesby to blow up the Houses of Parliament and kill the Protestant King James I and aristocracy. Since that year, the cellars have been searched, now largely, but not only, for ceremonial purposes. This is supervised by the Lord Great Chamberlain, and the Yeomen are paid for their services with a small glass of port wine.

Assembly of Peers and Commons
The peers assemble in the House of Lords wearing their robes. They are joined by senior representatives of the judiciary and members of the diplomatic corps. The Commons assemble in their own chamber, wearing ordinary day dress, and begin the day, as any other, with prayers. The Speaker of the House of Commons makes his usual procession towards the Commons Chamber, accompanied by his Household, the Mace, and a police inspector who makes a traditional cry of "Hats off, strangers." This commands those in Central Lobby to remove their hats in deference to the highest-ranking commoner in the realm.

Delivery of parliamentary hostage
Before the monarch departs from Buckingham Palace the Treasurer, Comptroller and Vice-Chamberlain of the Queen's Household (all of whom are government whips) deliver ceremonial white staves to her.[1] The Lord Chamberlain, on behalf of the monarch, keeps the hostage MP (usually the Vice-Chamberlain) "prisoner" for the duration of the state opening, by tradition as a surety for the safe return of the monarch. The hostage MP is well entertained until the successful conclusion of the ceremony, when they are released upon the safe return of the Queen.[1][2][3] The Vice-Chamberlain's imprisonment is now purely ceremonial, though they do remain under guard; originally, it guaranteed the safety of the Sovereign as they entered a possibly hostile Parliament. The tradition stems from the time of Charles I, who had a contentious relationship with Parliament and was eventually beheaded in 1649 during the Civil War between the monarchy and Parliament. A copy of Charles I's death warrant is displayed in the robing room used by the monarch as a ceremonial reminder of what can happen to a monarch who attempts to interfere with Parliament.

Hostage MPs have included:

2014: Desmond Swayne[4]
2015–16: Kris Hopkins[5]
2017: Chris Heaton-Harris[6]
2019: Stuart Andrew[7]
Arrival of royal regalia
Before the arrival of the sovereign, the Imperial State Crown is carried to the Palace of Westminster in its own State Coach from the Victoria Tower, the Crown is passed by the sovereign's Bargemaster to the Comptroller of the Lord Chamberlain's office, under the watchful eye of the Crown Jeweller. It is then carried, along with the Great Sword of State and the Cap of Maintenance, to be displayed in the Royal Gallery. Also brought in this procession, usually in King Edward VII's Town Coach, are two maces, separate from the three used by parliament, to be displayed by the Sergeants-at-Arms in the Royal Procession.

Arrival of the Sovereign and assembly of Parliament
The monarch arrives at the Palace of Westminster from Buckingham Palace in a state coach (since 2014, the Diamond Jubilee State Coach), entering through the Sovereign's Entrance under the Victoria Tower; the monarch is usually accompanied by his or her consort and sometimes by other members of the royal family. Members of the armed forces line the procession route from Buckingham Palace to the Palace of Westminster. As the national anthem is played, the Royal Standard is hoisted to replace the Union Flag upon the Sovereign's entrance and remains flying whilst they are present. Then, after he or she takes on the Parliament Robe of State[8][9] and Imperial State Crown in the Robing Chamber, the monarch proceeds through the Royal Gallery to the House of Lords, usually accompanied by his or her consort and immediately preceded by the Earl Marshal, and by one peer (usually the Leader of the House of Lords) carrying the Cap of Maintenance on a white rod, and another peer (generally a retired senior military officer) carrying the Great Sword of State, all following the Lord Great Chamberlain and his white stick, commonly the practical implement of ceremonial ushers, raised aloft. Once seated on the throne, the monarch, wearing the Imperial State Crown, instructs the House by saying, "My Lords, pray be seated"; her consort takes his seat on the throne to her left and other members of the royal family may be seated elsewhere on the dais (for instance the Prince of Wales may be seated on a chair of state on a lower portion of the dais to the monarch's right.)

Royal summons of the Commons to the Lords' chamber
Motioned by the monarch, the Lord Great Chamberlain raises his wand of office to signal to the Gentleman/Lady Usher of the Black Rod (known as Black Rod), who is charged with summoning the House of Commons and has been waiting in the Central Lobby. Black Rod turns and, under the escort of the Door-keeper of the House of Lords and a police inspector, proceeds to the Members' Lobby of the House of Commons, and reaches the doors of the Commons.
In 1642, King Charles I stormed into the House of Commons in an unsuccessful attempt to arrest the Five Members, who included the celebrated English patriot and leading parliamentarian John Hampden.[10][11] Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting.[12]

On Black Rod's approach, the Doorkeeper of the Commons orders that the doors are slammed shut against them, symbolising the rights of parliament and its independence from the monarch.[12] The Usher of the Black Rod then strikes with the end of their ceremonial staff (the Black Rod) three times on the closed doors of the Commons Chamber, and is then admitted. (There is a mark on the door of the Commons showing the repeated indentations made by Black Rods over the years.) The Sergeant-at-Arms introduces Black Rod. At the bar, Black Rod bows to the Speaker before proceeding to the table, bowing again, and announcing the command of the monarch for the attendance of the Commons, in the following words:

Mr [or Madam] Speaker, The Queen commands this honourable House [pauses to bow to both sides of the House] to attend Her Majesty immediately in the House of Peers.

A tradition developed in recent years for this command to be greeted with a defiant topical comment by republican-leaning Labour MP (until 2019) Dennis Skinner, upon which, with some mirth, the House rises to make their way to the Lords' Chamber.[12] This customary intervention was omitted by Mr Skinner in 2015, claiming that he had "bigger fish to fry than uttering something", due to a dispute over seating with the Scottish Nationalists.[13] Skinner resumed the practice in 2016.[14]

Procession of the Commons
The Speaker proceeds to attend the summons at once. The Sergeant-at-Arms picks up the ceremonial mace and, with the Speaker and Black Rod, leads the Members of the House of Commons as they walk, in pairs, towards the House of Lords. By custom, the members saunter, with much discussion and joking, rather than formally process. The Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition followed by The Deputy Prime Minister, First Secretary of State or another member of the government and the Deputy Leader of the Opposition usually walk side by side, leading the two lines of MPs. The Commons then arrive at the Bar of the House of Lords. The only people required to bow are the House of Commons Speaker, Commons Clerk, senior Lords official Black Rod and the Sergeant-at-Arms. No person who is not a member of the Upper House may pass the Bar unbidden when it is in session; a similar rule applies to the Commons. They remain standing at the Bar during the speech.

Delivery of the speech from the throne
The monarch reads a prepared speech, known as the "Speech from the Throne" or the "Queen's Speech", outlining the Government's agenda for the coming year. The speech is written by the Prime Minister and their cabinet members, and reflects the legislative agenda for which the Government seeks the agreement of both Houses of Parliament. It is traditionally written on goatskin vellum, and presented on bended knee for the monarch to read by the Lord Chancellor, who produces the scroll from a satchel-like bag. Traditionally, rather than turning his back on the Sovereign, which might appear disrespectful, the Lord Chancellor walks backwards down the steps of the throne, continuing to face the monarch. Lord Irvine of Lairg, the Lord Chancellor at the time, sought to break the custom and applied successfully for permission to turn his back on the sovereign and walk down the steps forwards. The next Lord Chancellor, Jack Straw, continued the former tradition but succeeding Lords Chancellor have chosen to walk forwards.

The whole speech is addressed to "My Lords and Members of the House of Commons", with one significant exception that the monarch says specifically, "Members of the House of Commons, estimates for the public services will be laid before you", since the budget is constitutionally reserved to the Commons.

The monarch reads the entire speech in a neutral and formal tone, implying neither approval nor disapproval of the proposals of Her Government: the monarch makes constant reference to "My Government" when reading the text. After listing the main bills to be introduced during the session, the monarch states: "Other measures will be laid before you", thus leaving the government scope to introduce bills not mentioned in the speech. The monarch mentions any state visits that she intends to make and also any planned state visits of foreign heads of state to the United Kingdom during the parliamentary session. The monarch concludes the speech in saying:

"My Lords and Members of the House of Commons, I pray that the blessing of Almighty God may rest upon your counsels".

Traditionally, the members of both houses of Parliament listen to the speech respectfully, neither applauding nor showing dissent towards its contents before it is debated in each house. This silence, however, was broken in 1998, when Queen Elizabeth II announced the government's plan of abolishing the right of hereditary peers to automatically sit in the House of Lords. A few Labour members of the House of Commons cried "yes" and "hear", prompting several of the Lords to shout "no" and "shame". The Queen continued delivering her speech without any pause, ignoring the intervention. The conduct of those who interrupted the speech was strongly criticised at the time.[15][16]

Departure of monarch
Following the speech, the monarch and his or her retinue leave the chamber. The monarch bows to both sides of the House of Peers and then leaves the chamber, in the reverse order of the usual procession, before the Commons bow again and return to their Chamber.

Debate on the speech
After the departure of the Queen from the palace, each Chamber proceeds to the consideration of an "Address in Reply to Her Majesty's Gracious Speech." But first, each House considers a bill pro forma to symbolise their right to deliberate independently of the monarch. In the House of Lords, the bill is called the Select Vestries Bill, while the Commons equivalent is the Outlawries Bill. The bills are considered for the sake of ceremony only, and do not make any actual legislative progress. For the address in reply, a chosen member moves "That an humble Address be presented to Her Majesty, as follows". The following is the form used in the House of Lords and is nearly identical to that used in the House of Commons:

Most Gracious Sovereign, We, Your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament assembled, beg leave to thank Your Majesty for the most gracious Speech which Your Majesty has addressed to both Houses of Parliament.[17]

The first speech of the debate in the Commons is, by tradition, a humorous one given by a member selected in advance. The consideration of the address in reply to the Throne Speech is the occasion for a debate on the Government's agenda. The debate on the Address in Reply is spread over several days. On each day, a different topic, such as foreign affairs or finance, is considered. The debate provides an indication of the views of Parliament regarding the government's agenda.

Following this debate, a vote is taken on the Government Programme. Since the Fixed-term Parliaments Act, a general election is not automatically triggered if this vote is lost.[18] Prior to the act, this would have been treated as a vote of no confidence.

"Dressed down State Opening"
On three occasions, in March 1974, 2017 and December 2019, the State Opening has been conducted in a "dressed-down" manner, due to the snap general elections held in those years. This form of ceremony has been marked by several changes. Most noticeably, the Queen attended in day dress, rather than the traditional ceremonial robes of state. The Imperial State Crown is carried in front of the Queen, in the same manner as the Sword of State and Cap of Maintenance. Also, no carriages or coaches are used, and the Queen arrives at Westminster by car. There is no military escort in the streets for this procession. Finally, certain personages, such as Heralds and Officers of Arms, are not in attendance at the ceremony. Other than these changes, the ceremony remains largely the same.

Double and cancelled Openings
Throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (including in wartime) the State Opening took place on an annual basis, with the following exceptions:[19]

There were two State Openings in 1914 (and no State Opening in 1915);
There were two State Openings in 1921 (and no State Opening in 1923);
There were two State Openings in 1924 (and no State Opening in 1925);
There were two State Openings in 1974
There were two State Openings in 2019 (and no State Opening in 2018).
After 1925, the State Opening invariably took place every year (and twice in 1974) until 2010, since when the government has twice cancelled the event:

In 2011 the State Opening was cancelled by the Conservative/Lib-Dem coalition, to ease the planned introduction of legislation for fixed-term Parliaments;[20]
In 2018 the State Opening was cancelled, by the Conservative minority government, to allow more time to push through Brexit laws.[21]
Origins
The Opening of Parliament[22] began out of practical necessity. By the late 14th century, the manner in which the King gathered his nobles and representatives of the Commons had begun to follow an established pattern. First of all, Peers' names were checked against the list of those who had been summoned, and representatives of the Commons were checked against the sheriffs' election returns. The Peers were robed and sat in the Painted Chamber at Westminster; the Commons were summoned, and stood at the Bar (threshold) of the Chamber. A speech or sermon was then given (usually by the Lord Chancellor) explaining why Parliament had been summoned, after which the Lords and Commons went separately to discuss the business in hand. The monarch normally presided, not only for the Opening but also for the deliberations which followed (unless prevented by illness or other pressing matters).

In the Tudor period, the modern structure of Parliament began to emerge, and the monarch no longer attended during normal proceedings. For this reason, the State Opening took on greater symbolic significance as an occasion for the full constitution of the State (Monarch, Lords and Commons) to be seen. In this period, the parliamentary gathering began to be preceded by an open-air State Procession (which often attracted large numbers of onlookers): the Monarch, together with Household retinue, would proceed in State from whichever royal residence was being used, first to Westminster Abbey for a service (usually a Mass of the Holy Ghost, prior to the Reformation), and thence on foot (accompanied by the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in their robes) to the Palace of Westminster for the Opening itself.

Wriothesley Garter Book, 1523
The Wriothesley Garter Book, a 1523 illustration by Sir Thomas Wriothesley, depicts King Henry VIII seated in Parliament in that year. It shows a remarkable visual similarity between State Openings of the 16th and 21st centuries. In both cases, the monarch sits on a throne before the Cloth of Estate, crowned and wearing a crimson robe of state; at his right hand sit Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor, with arms above under a cardinal's hat, and William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, with arms above. Behind stands Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of London.[23] The Cap of Maintenance and Sword of State are borne by peers standing before the monarch on the left and right respectively; the Lord Great Chamberlain stands alongside, bearing his white wand of office, near the Garter King of Arms in his tabard displaying the royal arms (Sir Thomas Wriothesley himself, the illustrator).[24] Members of the Royal retinue are arrayed behind the King (top right). In the main body of the Chamber, the Bishops are seated on benches to the King's right wearing their parliamentary robes, with the Mitred Abbots behind them. The Lords Temporal are seated to the King's left and on the cross-bench, the status of peers is indicated by the number of miniver bars (white fur edged with gold oak-leaf lace) on their peerage robes: 4 for a duke, 3½ for a marquess, 3 for an earl, 2½ for a viscount, and 2 for a baron. Thus there are 2 dukes, both wearing ducal coronets, the first holding a Marshal's Baton, thus he is the Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of England. Sir William Weston, Prior of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem, premier baron in the roll of peers, dressed in black, sits at the end of the cross-bench.[23] The judges (red-robed and coifed) are on the woolsacks in the centre (two Chief Justices, eight judges, and four Serjeants-at-Law[23]), and behind them kneel the clerks (with quills and inkpots). At the bottom of the picture members of the House of Commons can be seen behind the Bar of the House, with Sir Thomas More,[23] Speaker of the House of Commons, in the centre, wearing his black and gold robe of state.

Since that time the ceremonial has evolved, but not dramatically. Mitred Abbots were removed from Parliament at the time of the Reformation. In 1679 neither the procession nor the Abbey service took place, due to fears of a Popish Plot; although the procession was subsequently restored, the service in the Abbey was not. The monarch's role in the proceedings changed over time: early on, the monarch would say some introductory words, before calling upon the Lord Chancellor (or Lord Keeper) to address the assembly. James I, however, was accustomed to speak at greater length himself, and sometimes dispensed with the Chancellor's services as spokesman. This varying pattern continued in subsequent reigns (and during the Commonwealth, when Cromwell gave the speech), but from 1679 onwards it became the norm for the monarch alone to speak. Since then, the monarch (if present) has almost invariably given the speech, with the exception of George I (whose command of English was poor) and Victoria (after the death of Prince Albert). A dramatic change was occasioned by the destruction of the old Palace of Westminster by fire in 1834; however, the new palace was designed with the ceremony of the State Opening very much in mind,[25] and the modern ceremony dates from its opening in 1852.[26] The entire State Opening of Parliament was filmed[27] and televised for the first time in 1958.[28]

In 1998, adjustments were made to the ceremonial inside Parliament to shorten the proceedings. The heralds, instead of processing with the monarch, arrived at Parliament earlier and had a separate procession. The number of court officials in the procession was reduced, including one of the ladies in waiting and the Crown Equerry. Also omitted were the three Heads of the Armed Services, represented instead by the Chief of the Defence Staff. Silver Stick in Waiting (the Commander of the Household Cavalry) no longer processed, although Gold Stick-in-Waiting (the honorary Colonel of the Household Cavalry) retained a place.[29]

Equivalents in other countries
Similar ceremonies are held in other Commonwealth realms. The governor-general or, in the case of Australia's states and Canada's provinces, the relevant governor or lieutenant governor, respectively, usually delivers the speech from the throne. On occasion, the monarch may open these parliaments and deliver the speech herself. In both Australia and Canada, the last time this occurred was in 1977.[30][31] In New Zealand, the monarch last opened parliament personally in February 1990.[32]

In India, the President of India opens Parliament with an address similar to the Speech from the Throne. This is also the case in Commonwealth Republics with a non-executive Presidency such as Malta, Mauritius and Singapore.


King Haakon VII delivering the Speech from the Throne in the Stortinget in 1950.
In the Netherlands a similar ceremony is held on the third Tuesday in September, which is called Prinsjesdag in the Netherlands. Article 65 of the constitution states that "A statement of the policy to be pursued by the Government is given by or on behalf of the King before a joint session of the two Houses of the States General that is held every year on the third Tuesday in September or on such earlier date as may be prescribed by Act of Parliament." In Norway, the King is required by Article 74 of the constitution to preside over the opening of the Storting after it had been declared to be legally constituted by the president of the Storting. After he delivers the Speech from the Throne, outlining the government's policies for the coming year, a member of the government reads the Report on the State of the Realm, an account of the government's achievements of the past year.[33]

In Sweden a similar ceremony as the British was held until 1974, when the constitution was changed. The old opening of state was in Sweden called Riksdagens högtidliga öppnande ("The solemn opening of the Riksdag") and was, as the British, full of symbolism. After the abolition of the old state opening, the opening is now held in the Riksdag but in the presence of the monarch and his family. It is still the King who officially opens the parliament. After the opening of parliament the King gives a speech followed by the Prime Minister's declaration of government.

In Israel, a semi-annual ceremony, attended by the President, opens the winter and summer sessions of the Knesset. Though in the past he was a guest sitting in the Knesset's upper deck, the President now attends the ceremony from the speaker's podium and gives his own written address regarding the upcoming session. In the first session of each legislative period of the Knesset, the President has the duty of opening the first session himself and inaugurating the temporary Knesset speaker, and then conducting the inauguration process of all of the Knesset members.

In some countries with presidential or similar systems in which the roles of head of state and head of government are merged, the chief executive's annual speech to the legislative branch is imbued with some of the ceremonial weight of a parliamentary state opening. The most well-known example is the State of the Union Address in the United States. Other examples include the State of the Nation Address in the Philippines, a former American dependency. These speeches differ from a State Opening in at least two respects, however: they do not in fact open the legislative session, and they are delivered by the chief executive on his or her own behalf. In Poland, the President of Poland delivers his speech to the Sejm and the Senate at the First Sitting of these Houses, which is similar to Speech from the Throne. It is rather a custom than a law. Most Presidents of Poland delivered the Speech to the Parliament. The exception was in 2007, when President Lech Kaczyński, instead of addressing the Sejm, watched the First Sitting of the 6th term Sejm from the Presidential box in the Press gallery.

Lord Bath

Lord Bath

Alexander George Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath (6 May 1932 - 4 April 2020), styled Viscount Weymouth between 1946 and 1992, was an English politician, artist, and author. He was ranked 359th in the Sunday Times Rich List 2009 with an estimated wealth of £157 million.
Early life and education
Although born in London, he grew up at his family's seat, Longleat, a great Elizabethan house set in Wiltshire parkland landscaped in the 18th century by Capability Brown.[1] After attending Ludgrove School and Eton College, he was commissioned into the Life Guards as a lieutenant in 1951.[2] He was then educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was president of the Bullingdon Club, and travelled across Europe.[3]

Political career
Believing that Wessex would be better off as a devolved region within the UK, he stood in the February 1974 General Election as a Wessex regionalist. Shortly after the election, he was one of the founders of the Wessex Regionalist Party. He stood for the party in the first ever elections to the European Parliament in 1979.[citation needed]

After inheriting the marquessate from his father in 1992, he sat in the House of Lords as a Liberal Democrat. Among other things, he spoke on the need for devolution for the regions of England, until he lost his place in the House of Lords after the Labour Government's reforms excluded most of the hereditary peers.[citation needed]

Personal life
In 1969, he married Hungarian-born Anna Gyarmathy, also known as Anna Gael,[4] by whom he has two children, Lady Lenka Abigail Thynn and Ceawlin Thynn, 8th Marquess of Bath, who were sent to the local comprehensive school.[5] After his father's death, he sacked Christopher, his brother, as estate controller and evicted him from his home.[6] Lord Bath has also acknowledged an illegitimate daughter born circa 2000.[7]

Born with the family name Thynne, he dropped the "e" in 1976, as he wanted it to be pronounced to rhyme with "pin" and not "pine". He was known for his colourful style of dress, which he acquired as an art student in Paris in the 1950s,[8] and was a prolific amateur painter who has decorated rooms of his home with erotic scenes from the Kama Sutra.[4][5] He had openly had sexual relations with over seventy women during his marriage, and installed many of them in estate cottages. He referred to these women as wifelets.[9]

The Marquess passed the management of the business to his son Viscount Weymouth early in 2010.[10] By one account, the Viscount intended to evict the wifelets from their estate cottages.[11] Some of his father's murals were removed, which caused a rift and led to a boycott by the Marquess of his son's marriage to Emma McQuiston.[12]

Death
He was admitted to the Royal United Hospital, Bath on 28 March 2020, and while in hospital tested positive for the COVID-19 virus. He died of the virus on 4 April 2020 at the age of 87.[13][14]

Appearances and media
In 1999, he appeared in series 6, episode 4 of Time Team, which dealt with the excavation of a cave in the Cheddar Gorge, an area of land owned by him. From 2000 to 2009 Animal Park, a television documentary about the life of keepers and animals at Longleat Safari Park, Wiltshire, England, aired over 9 series on the BBC. It also covered the daily life of workers in Longleat House, the estate and the gardens and regularly featured items about Lord Bath himself.

In March 2009, he appeared in episode 4 of Heston's Feasts. The Marquess of Bath, a book by Nesta Wyn Ellis, initially written with Bath's co-operation, was published in the autumn of 2010.[15] Lord Bath's autobiography, collectively called Strictly Private to Public Exposure, was first published as a series by Artnik Books, and since 2002 has been republished by Top Spot Publishing. His other screen credits include an episode of Globe Trekker. He plays an aristocrat in the music video for the Pet Shop Boys song "Rent".[citation needed]

Artist and potter Grayson Perry interviewed the Marquess in the third of his three-part 2012 documentary series All in the Best Possible Taste with Grayson Perry which focused on Britain's upper class.

In 2014 he appeared in All Change at Longleat, a three-part documentary of some of the issues as he passed the running of the house to his son.

Bibliography
Bath, Alexander Thynn (2000). The New World Order of Alexander Thynn: Views on Politics, Society and Religion by the Marquess of Bath. London: Starhaven. ISBN 0-936315-13-X.
Bath, Alexander Thynn (2002). Strictly Private to Public Exposure (Series 1: A Plateful of Privilege). London: Artnik. ISBN 978-1-903906-08-8.
Ellis, Nesta (2010). The Marquess of Bath. London: Dynasty Press. ISBN 978-0-9553507-4-0.

ابن سينا

ابن سينا

ابن سينا هو أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن علي بن سينا، عالم وطبيب بخارى، اشتهر بالطب والفلسفة واشتغل بهما. ولد في قرية أفشنة بالقرب من بخارى (في أوزبكستان حالياً) من أب من مدينة بلخ (في أفغانستان حالياً)  وأم قروية. ولد سنة 370 هـ (980م) وتوفي في همدان (في إيران حاليا) سنة 427 هـ (1037م). عُرف باسم الشيخ الرئيس وسماه الغربيون بأمير الأطباء وأبو الطب الحديث في العصور الوسطى. وقد ألّف 200 كتابا في مواضيع مختلفة، العديد منها يركّز على الفلسفة والطب. ويعد ابن سينا من أول من كتب عن الطبّ في العالم ولقد اتبع نهج أو أسلوب أبقراط وجالينوس. وأشهر أعماله كتاب القانون في الطب الذي ظل لسبعة قرون متوالية المرجع الرئيسي في علم الطب، وبقي كتابه (القانون في الطب) العمدة في تعليم هذا الفنِّ حتى أواسط القرن السابع عشر في جامعات أوروبا  ويُعد ابن سينا أوَّل من وصف التهاب السَّحايا الأوَّليِّ وصفًا صحيحًا، ووصف أسباب اليرقان ، ووصف أعراض حصى المثانة، وانتبه إلى أثر المعالجة النفسانية في الشفاء . وكتاب الشفاء.
اسمه
لم يكن ابن سينا هو الابن بل حفيد الحفيد لرجل يدعى سينا. كان اسمه الرسمي باللغة العربية هو أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن علي بن سينا .

ظروفه
كان إنتاج ابن سينا من الأعمال والمؤلفات بالغ الغزارة خلال حقبة ما يعرف باسم العصر الذهبي للإسلام، حيث انتشرت دراسة ترجمات النصوص اليونانية الرومانية والفارسية والهندية على نطاق واسع. وأضيفت الشروحات والتعليقات على المؤلفات والنصوص اليونانية-الرومانية (ومنها الأفلاطونية الوسطى والمحدثة والأرسطية) التي ترجمتها مدرسة الكندي، وتمت صياغتها وتطويرها بشكل كبير من قبل المثقفين الإسلاميين، الذين استندوا أيضًا إلى النظم الرياضية الفارسية والهندية، وعلم الفلك، والجبر، وعلم حساب المثلثات والطب. سلالة السامانية في الجزء الشرقي من بلاد فارس، خراسان الكبرى وآسيا الوسطى وكذلك سلالة بوييد في الجزء الغربي من بلاد فارس والعراق وفرت بيئة مزدهرة للتنمية العلمية والثقافية. في عهد السامانيين، تنافس بخارى على بغداد كعاصمة ثقافية للعالم الإسلامي.

ازدهرت دراسة القرآن والحديث في هذا الجو العلمي. تم تطوير الفلسفة والفقه واللاهوت (الكلام) بشكل أكبر، بشكل ملحوظ من قِبل أبن سينا وخصومه. قدم الرازي والفارابي منهجية ومعرفة في الطب والفلسفة. تمكن ابن سينا من الوصول إلى المكتبات الكبيرة مثل بلخ، خوارزم، غورغان، ري، أصفهان وهمدان. تُظهر النصوص المختلفة (مثل العهد مع بهمانيار) أنه ناقش النقاط الفلسفية مع أعظم علماء العصر. يشرح أروزي سمرقندي كيف قبل أن يغادر ابن سينا خوارزم كان قد قابل البيروني (عالم مشهور وعالم فلك) وأبو نصر العراقي (عالم رياضيات مشهور) وأبو سهل مشيحي (فيلسوف محترم) وأبو الخير خمار.

مطلع حياته
عندما كان مراهقًا، شعر بانزعاج كبير من الميتافيزيقيا لأرسطو، وهو ما لم يستطع فهمه حتى قرأ تعليق الفارابي حول العمل. لمده عام ونصف، درس الفلسفة، والتي واجهت عقبات أكبر. في مثل هذه اللحظات من التحقيق المحير، ترك كتبه، وادي الوضوء المطلوب، ثم ذهب إلى المسجد، واستمر في الصلاة حتى يضيء الضوء على صعوباته. في أعماق الليل، كان يواصل دراسته، وحتى في أحلامه، تتابعه المشكلات وتوصل إلى حل لها. ويقال إنه قرأ أربعين مرة من خلال الميتافيزيقيا في أرسطو، حتى طبعت الكلمات على ذاكرته. لكن معانيها كانت غامضة بشكل يائس، حتى وجدوا ذات يوم إضاءة، من التعليق الصغير لفارابي، الذي اشتراه في مكتبة مقابل مبلغ صغير قدره ثلاثة دراهم. كان فرحًا كبيرًا بالاكتشاف، الذي تم إجراؤه بمساعدة عمل كان يتوقع منه الغموض فقط، حتى سارع إلى العودة بفضل الله، ومنح الصدقات للفقراء.

التفت إلى الطب في سن 16، ولم يتعلم النظرية الطبية فحسب، بل أيضًا بحضور المرضى دون مقابل، وفقًا لروايته الخاصة، اكتشف طرقًا جديدة للعلاج.  حقق المراهق مكانته الكاملة كطبيب مؤهل في سن 18 عامًا،  ووجد أن "الطب ليس علمًا شاقًا وشائكًا، مثل الرياضيات والميتافيزيقيا، لذلك أحرز تقدمًا سريعًا؛ حتى أصبح طبيبا ممتازا وبدأ في علاج المرضى، باستخدام العلاجات المعتمدة ". انتشرت شهرة الطبيب الشاب بسرعة، وعالج العديد من المرضى دون أن يطلب منهم الدفع.

وقد تم اقتراح عدد من النظريات فيما يتعلق بمذهب ابن سينا (مدرسة الفكر في الفقه الإسلامي). اعتبر المؤرخ في العصور الوسطى شهر الدين البيهقي (المتوفى 1169) أن ابن سينا من أتباع إخوان الطهارة. من ناحية أخرى، أظهر ديميتري جوتاس مع عائشة خان وجول جانسن سنس أن ابن سينا كان حنفي سني. ومع ذلك، أكد فقيه نور الله شوشتاري في القرن الرابع عشر وفقًا لسيد حسين نصر، أنه كان على الأرجح شيعيًا اثني عشري. على عكس ذلك، يعتقد شرف خراساني، مستشهداً برفض الحاكم السني سلطان محمود غضانوي من قِبل ابن سينا إلى بلاطه، أن ابن سينا كان إسماعيليًا. توجد خلافات مماثلة على خلفية عائلة ابن سينا، في حين أن بعض الكتاب اعتبروهم سنيين، لكن بعض الكتاب الأحدث اعترضوا على أنهم شيعة.

مرحلة البلوغ
كان عمل ابن سينا الأول هو تعيينه كطبيب الأمير، نوح الثاني، الذي يدين له بالشفاء من مرض خطير (997). وكانت المكافأة الرئيسية لابن سينا لهذه الخدمة هي الوصول إلى المكتبة السامانية الملكية، وهم رعاة مشهورون للعلم والعلماء. عندما تم تدمير المكتبة بالنار بعد فترة ليست طويلة، اتهمه أعداء ابن سينا بحرقها، من أجل إخفاء مصادر معرفته إلى الأبد. وفي الوقت نفسه، ساعد والده في أعماله المالية، لكنه لا يزال يجد وقتًا لكتابة بعض أعماله الأولى.[33]

في الثانية والعشرين من عمره، فقد ابن سينا والده. انتهت الأسرة السامانية في ديسمبر 1004. ويبدو أن ابن سينا رفض عروض محمود غزني، وتوجه غربًا إلى أورجينش في تركمانستان الحديثة، حيث أعطاه الوزير، الذي يعتبر صديقًا للعلماء، راتب شهري صغير. كان الراتب ضئيلًا، لذلك تجول ابن سينا من مكان إلى آخر عبر مقاطعتي نيسابور وميرف إلى حدود خراسان، بحثًا عن فرصة لمواهبه. وكان قابوس، حاكم تباريستان الكريم، وهو نفسه شاعر وباحث، كان يتوقع ابن سينا أن يلجأ إليه، كان في ذلك التاريخ (1012) جائعًا حتى الموت على يد قواته التي ثارت. كان ابن سينا نفسه قد أصيب في هذا الوقت بمرض شديد. أخيرًا، في غورغان، بالقرب من بحر قزوين، التقى أبن سينا مع صديق له، واشترى منزلاً بالقرب من منزله الذي حاضر فيه ابن سينا حول المنطق وعلم الفلك. تم كتابة العديد من أطروحاته لهذا الراعي؛ وبدء كتاب القانون في الطب يعود أيضًا إلى فترة إقامته في هركانيا.

استقر ابن سينا في وقت لاحق في الري، بالقرب من مدينة طهران الحديثة، مسقط رأس رزيس؛ حيث كان مجد عبد الله، ابن آخر أمير بويهي، حاكما اسميًا تحت الوصاية من والدته (السيدة خاتون). يُقال إن حوالي ثلاثين من أعمال ابن سينا الأقصر كانت في الري. ومع ذلك فقد أجبرت الخلافات المستمرة بين الوصي وابنها الثاني، شمس الدولة، الباحث على ترك المكان. بعد قضاء فترة وجيزة في قزوين، مر جنوبًا إلى حمدان حيث أسس شمس الدولة، وهو أمير بويهي آخر، نفسه. وفي البداية، دخل ابن سينا في خدمة سيدة رفيعة المستوى؛ لكن الأمير، الذي سمع عن وصوله، استدعاه كمرافق طبي، وأرسله مع الهدايا إلى مسكنه. لقد رُقي ابن سينا إلى رتبة الوزير. بعد ذلك أصدر الأمير قرارًا بنفيه من البلاد. ومع ذلك، ظل ابن سينا مختبئًا لمدة أربعين يومًا في منزل الشيخ أحمد فاضل، إلى أن أدى هجوم جديد من المرض إلى تحفيز الأمير على إعادته إلى منصبه. حتى خلال هذا الوقت المضطرب، ثابر ابن سينا على دراسته وتدريسه. في كل مساء، تم إملاء مقتطفات من أعماله العظيمة، الشريعة وساناتيو، وشرحت لتلاميذه. عند وفاة الأمير، توقف ابن سينا عن كونه أكثر من ذلك وأخفى نفسه في منزل أحد الأساطير، حيث واصل، بتكثيف شديد، تأليف أعماله.

وفي الوقت نفسه، كتب إلى أبو يعفار، محافظ مدينة أصفهان المفعمة بالحيوية، يقدم خدماته. أمير همدان الجديد، وهو يسمع بهذه المراسلات ويكتشف فيها مخبأ ابن سينا، سجنه في قلعة. استمرت الحرب بين حكام أصفهان وهمدان. في عام 1024، استولى السابق على همدان وبلداتها، وطرد المرتزقة الطاجيك. عندما مرت العاصفة، عاد ابن سينا مع الأمير إلى حمدان، واستمر في عمله الأدبي. في وقت لاحق، ومع ذلك، برفقة شقيقه، وهو تلميذ مفضل، واثنين من العبيد، هرب ابن سينا من المدينة مرتدياً ثوبًا صوفيًا. بعد رحلة محفوفة بالمخاطر، وصلوا إلى أصفهان، وتلقوا ترحيباً حاراً من الأمير.

حياته اللاحقة
الصفحة الأولى من مخطوطة لشريعة ابن سينا، بتاريخ 1596/7 (ييل، المكتبة التاريخية الطبية، كوشينغ العربية، رقم 5) أمضيت السنوات العشر أو الاثني عشر المتبقية من حياة ابن سينا في خدمة حاكم الكاكويد محمد بن رستم دوشمانزيار (المعروف أيضًا باسم علاء الدولة)، الذي رافقه كطبيب ومستشار أدبي وعلمي عام، حتى في حملاته العديدة.

خلال هذه السنوات بدأ يدرس المسائل الأدبية وعلم اللغة، وحرض عليها، وأكد عليها، من خلال الانتقادات على أسلوبه. مغص شديد، أصابه في مسيرة الجيش ضد همدان، عن طريق علاجات عنيفة لدرجة أن ابن سينا كان بالكاد يقف. في مناسبة مماثلة عاد المرض. بصعوبة وصل إلى همدان، حيث وجد أن المرض يتقدم، ورفض الاستمرار على الحمية التي فرضت عليه، واستسلم لمصيره.

الفلسفة
كتب ابن سينا على نطاق واسع عن الفلسفة الإسلامية المبكرة، لا سيما في موضوعات المنطق، والأخلاق، والميتافيزيقيا، بما في ذلك الأطروحات المسماة المنطق والميتافيزيقيا. معظم أعماله كانت مكتوبة باللغة العربية - ثم لغة العلم في الشرق الأوسط - وبعضها باللغة الفارسية. من الأهمية اللغوية حتى يومنا هذا بعض الكتب التي كتبها بلغة فارسيّة تقريبًا (لا سيما دانيشنامه - علاء، فلسفة علاء الدولة). غالباً ما تنتقد تعليقات ابن سينا على أرسطو الفيلسوف، [بحاجة لمصدر] لتشجيع نقاش حي بروح الاجتهاد.

أصبح مخطط ابن سينا للأفلاطونية لـ "الانبثاق" أساسيًا في الكلام (مدرسة الخطاب اللاهوتي) في القرن الثاني عشر.

أصبح كتابه للشفاء متاحًا في أوروبا بترجمة لاتينية جزئية بعد حوالي خمسين عامًا من كتابته، تحت عنوان Sufficia، وقد حدد بعض المؤلفين "علم الطيور اللاتينية" بأنه مزدهر لبعض الوقت، موازٍ لطبقة الشهية اللاتينية الأكثر تأثيراً المراسيم الباريسية لعام 1210 و1215.

أثر علم النفس لدى ابن سينا ونظرية المعرفة على ويليام أوفيرن، أسقف باريس وألبرتوس ماغنوس، بينما أثرت الميتافيزيقيا في فكر توماس أكويناس.
تعريفه للنفس
أهمية ابن سينا الفلسفية تكمن في نظريته في النفس وأفكاره في فلسفة النفس، مقدمات ابن سينا في النفس هي مقدمات أرسطية. تعريف ابن سينا للنفس: النفس كمال أول لجسم طبيعي آلي ذي حياة بالقوة أي من جهة ما يتولد (وهذا مبدأ القوة المولدة) ويربو (وهذا مبدأ القوة المنمية) ويتغذى (وهذا مبدأ القوة الغاذية) وذلك كله ما يسميه بالنفس النباتية. وهي كمال أول من جهة ما يدرك الجزئيات ويتحرك بالإرادة وهذا ما يسميه بالنفس الحيوانية. وهي كمال أول من جهة ما يدرك الكليات ويعقل بالاختيار الفكري وهذا ما يسميه النفس الإنسانية.

شرح التعريف
ونعني في التعريف السابق أن النفس عند ابن سينا 3 نباتية/حيوانية/إنسانية.

كمال أول: تعني مبدأ أول
ذي حياة بالقوة: يعني لدينا جسم مستعد وطبيعي لتقبل الحياة
مبادئ النفس النباتية: تنمو وتتوالد وتتغذى ولا يفعل النبات أكثر من ذلك.
مبادئ النفس الحيوانية: تدرك الجزئيات (مثلا يدرك أفعى أمامه/ إنسان أمامه) يتحرك بالإرادة أي فيه إرادة توجهه (مثلا الأسد بإرادته ممكن أن يقفز على إنسان ويبتلعه).
مبادئ النفس الإنسانية: تدرك الكليات، اختيار فكري أي الحرية الفكرية التي نتوجه لها للاختيار من بين بدائل مختلفة.
تصور ابن سينا لأصل النفس:

من أين جاءت ؟
علاقة النفس بالبدن.
مصير النفس.
المسألة غامضة عند ابن سينا ولكن ربما قصيدته العينية هي التي تعبر أكثر من غيرها عن رأي ابن سينا في المسائل الثلاث. قصيدته مكونة من 4 أقسام لدى قراءتها تتضح الإجابة على الثلاث أسئلة السابقة.

البراهين على وجود النفس عند ابن سينا:

برهن ابن سينا على وجود النفس عن طريق:

1- البرهان الطبيعي :

ويعتمد هذا البرهان على مبدأ الحركة والتي هي نوعان:

حركة قسرية: ناتجة عن دفعة خارجية تصيب جسما فتحركه
حركة لاقسرية: وهذا ما عناها ابن سينا وهي أنواع:
منها ما يحدث على مقتضى الطبيعة كسقوط حجر من الأعلى إلى الأسفل
منها ما يحدث ضد مقتضى الطبيعة وهنا يكمن "البرهان"
كالإنسان الذي يمشي على وجه الأرض مع أن ثقل جسمه يدعو إلى السكون، هذه الحركة المضادة للطبيعة ولقوانينها تستلزم محركا خاصا زائدا على عناصر الجسم المتحرك ألا وهي (النفس)

2- البرهان النفسي:

ويقوم هذا البرهان على الأفعال الوجدانية والإدراك، فالإنسان يمتاز عن الحيوان بأنه يتعجب ويضحك ويبكي، كما أنه من أهم خواصه: الكلام واستعمال الرموز والإشارات وإدراك المعاني المجردة واستخراج المجهول من المعلوم. هذه الأفعال والأحوال هي مما يختص به الإنسان، وهي ليست راجعة للبدن، بل هي قوة مستقلة كما قال ابن سينا شيء آخر لك ان تسميه النفس. وهذا الجوهر الذي يتصرف في أجزاء بدنك هو فيك واحد وهو أنت بالتدقيق..

محمود جبريل

محمود جبريل

محمود جبريل (28 مايو 1952 - 5 أبريل 2020) سياسي ليبي معارض عضو في المجلس الوطني الإنتقالي لإسقاط نظام معمر القذافي منذ 5 مارس 2011، تقلد منصب أمين مجلس التخطيط الوطني ومدير مجلس التطوير الاقتصادي في عهد حكم معمر القذافي، بعد أحداث 2011 أنشأ حزب تحالف القوى الوطنية السياسي. المؤهل العلمي: دكتوراه في التخطيط الاستراتيجي - علوم سياسية.
سيرة ذاتية
ولد في ليبيا عام 1952 حصل على البكالوريوس في الاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية من جامعة القاهرة عام 1975، تزوج من ابنة شعراوي جمعة وزير داخلية مصر الأسبق، حصل على الماجستير في العلوم السياسية من جامعة بتسبيرج بولاية بنسلفانيا في الولايات المتحدة عام 1980، وعلى الدكتوراه في التخطيط الاستراتيجي من نفس الجامعة عام 1984، حيث عمل فيها أستاذا للتخطيط الاستراتيجي عدة سنوات، ثم تولى بعد ذلك تنظيم وإدارة العديد من برامج التدريب لقيادات الإدارة العليا في كثير من الدول العربية والأجنبية منها مصر والسعودية وليبيا والإمارات العربية المتحدة والأردن والمغرب وتونس وتركيا وبريطانيا، يعتبر محمود جبريل من الداعيين للتغيير في ليبيا وإسقاط نظام معمر القذافي واشترط لرجوعه إلى ليبيا زمن النظام الجماهيري مجموعة من الشروط التي تخدم توجهه السياسي ومصالحه الشخصية وقد وافق النظام على بعض هذه الشروط ضمن خطة مصالحة مع المعارضة الليبية في الخارج. محمود جبريل له دور بارز في أحداث فبراير 2011، حيث إنضم إلى المجلس الوطني الإنتقالي وساهم تواصله مع حكومات فرنسا وأمريكا والإمارات في إسقاط النظام الجماهيري وقتل العقيد معمر القذافي وبعد الثورة أنشأ حزب تحالف القوى الوطنية اليبرالي الذي لم يحقق نتائج قوية في الإنتخابات البرلمانية السابقة.

وفاته
توفي في الخامس من أبريل 2020 في العاصمة المصرية القاهرة، بعد إصابته بمرض فيروس كورونا، كما أنه كان يعاني من مشكلات في القلب.

حسين صبور

حسين صبور

حسين فايق صبور (ولد في 1936) مهندس مصري وكان رئيسا لنادي الصيد عام 1992. أسس العديد من شركات التنمية العقارية في مصر كما ساهم في إقامة العديد في المدن الجديدة في مصر، شغل رئيس جمعية رجال الأعمال المصريين. ترأس المجلس المصري الأمريكي المشرف على إنفاق المعونة العسكرية الأمريكية لمصر خلال عقدي الثمانينات والتسعينات، والتي كانت تزيد على 1 بليون دولار سنوياً.
حياته
ولد في عام 1936.

تاريخه المهني
تخرج من كلية الهندسة جامعة القاهرة (مدني عام 1957)
حصل بعد تخرجه على دبلوم تخطيط الطرق 1958 ودبلوم التنمية الأساسية 1962
شغل منصب رئيس مجلس الإدارة والعضو المنتدب لشركة الأهلي للتنمية العقارية (الشركة الرائدة في مجال التنمية العقارية والتي يساهم فيها البنك الأهلى المصري بنسبة 40%)
رأس مكتب المهندس الإستشارى حسين صبور ويعتبر من أكبر المكاتب الإستشارية في مصر وأفريقيا والعالم العربي، كذلك توسعت نشاطاته في أوروبا
رئيس مجلس إدارة مجموعة من الشركات التي يتعلق نشاطها بالعمل الهندسى أو يرتبط به فعلى سبيل المثال:
- شركة أورينتال ريزورتس للتعمير السياحى

- شركة الأهلى للإستثمارات العمرانية

- شركة جنوب سيناء للإدارة والتنمية والإستثمار

- شركة مصر أمريكا للتنمية

- شركة ريلانتكس للقرى السياحية

- الشركة المصرية للمشروعات الترفيهية والسياحية (إيسيتا)

شغل منصب عضو مجلس إدارة الهيئة العامة للإستثمار والمناطق الحرة
شغل منصب رئيس مجلس إدارة جمعية رجال الأعمال المصريين
شغل منصب نائب رئيس اتحاد رجال الأعمال العرب
شغل عضو مجلس إدارة غرفة التجارة المصرية البريطانية
شغل منصب عضو مجلس إدارة المجلس التصديرى للتشييد المصري
شغل منصب عضو مجلس إدارة الشركة القومية للتشييد والتعمير
شغل منصب عضو مجلس إدارة مركز "تطوير الدراسات العليا والبحوث في العلوم الهندسية" بكلية الهندسة – جامعة القاهرة
شغل منصب عضو المجلس الأعلى لجمعية الهلال الأحمر المصري
شغل منصب رئيس مجلس إدارة جمعية خريجى كلية الهندسة – جامعة القاهرة
ساهم في إنشاء اتحاد الإستشاريين من الدول الإسلامية ومقره اسطنبول وشغل منصب نائب رئيس مجلس الإدارة في السنوات الأربع الأولى من تاريخ إنشاءه
ساهم في تكوين المائدة المستديرة لرجال الأعمال الأفارقة ومقرها أبيدجيان (ساحل العاج) وشغل منصب نائب الرئيس فيها لمدة أربع سنوات
ساهم في إنشاء أول شركة مصرية تعمل بنظام الــ BOT في مصر وقام برئاستها لسنوات عديدة
كان رئيسا لمجلس الأعمال المصري الأمريكي
شغل منصب رئيس بنك المهندس لمدة تزيد عن الخمس سنوات
شغل منصب رئيس مجلس إدارة شركة المجموعة المصرية العقارية لمدة ست سنوات
شغل منصب عضو مجلس إدارة شركة المقاولون العرب (عثمان أحمد عثمان وشركاه).
المشروعات التي قام بتنفيذها
مترو الأنفاق بالقاهرة
مدينة السادات
مدينة 6 أكتوبر
ومن المشروعات السياحية
شيراتون الجزيرة
هيلتون الأقصر
فندق سميراميس
تحسين وتوسيع شبكات الكهرباء بالقاهرة والإسكندرية
الصرف الصحي بالقاهرة الكبرى والسويس والإسماعيلية وبورسعيد
الحديقة الدولية بمدينة نصر
تخطيط كورينش النيل بالقاهرة
المشاركة في تقويم منشآت طابا السياحية
.

من بحوثه
الاسكان مشكلة لها حل
أسرته
نجل المهندس علي فائق صبور والسيدة نادرة مصطفي الخولي. شقيق الطبيب محمد صادق صبور
ابنه المهندس أحمد حسين صبور العضو المنتدب لشركة الاهلي للتنمية العقارية ، وابنه عمر كذلك عضو بشركة الأهلي للتنمية العقارية

نسرين طافش

نسرين طافش

نسرين طافش (15 فبراير 1982 -)؛ ممثلة ومغنية سورية.
عن حياتها
وُلدت نسرين في محافظة حلب، لأب من أصول فلسطينية من صفد، وأم جزائرية من وهران، وهي تحمل - إضافة إلى مواطنتها السوريَّة - الجواز الجزائري نسبة لوالدتها. انتقلت من مدينتها حلب إلى العاصمة دمشق في العام 1999، لتُكمل دراستها هناك، وانضمت للمعهد العالي للفنون المسرحية بدمشق وتخرّجت منه في العام 2008، إلّا أنّ مشوارها الفني كان قد بدأ قبل تخرّجها بكثير، حيث بدأ تحديدًا في العام 2002 من خلال دورها في مسلسل «هولاكو»، ثم مثّلت العديد من الأدوار الناجحة، منها في مسلسلات: «ربيع قرطبة»، «التغريبة الفلسطينية»، وتوالت بعدها أعمال البطولة، ومنها دورها في مسلسل صبايا عام 2009، وفي مسلسل جلسات نسائية في العام 2011.

حصلت على الرتبة 79 في قائمة أجمل الوجوه النسائية في العالم لعام 2017.

دخولها لمجال الغناء
منذ عام 2017 بدأت مسيرتها الغنائية بأغنيات منفردة «متغير علي» و «123 حبيبي» و«إلا معك» عام 2018.

حياتها الأسرية
والدها هو الشاعر يوسف طافش، كانت مخطوبة أثناء الدراسة للمخرج المثنى صبح. في عام 2008، تزوجت من رجل أعمال إماراتي حتى اعلنت عن انفصالهما في عام 2013

زياد علي

زياد علي محمد