Fred Hampton

Fredrick Allen Hampton (August 30, 1948 – December 4, 1969) was an American Black Panther Party activist and revolutionary socialist.  He came to prominence in Chicago as chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party (BPP), and deputy chairman of the national BPP. In this capacity, he founded the Rainbow Coalition, a prominent multicultural political organization that initially included the Black Panthers, Young Patriots and the Young Lords, and an alliance among major Chicago street gangs to help them end infighting and work for social change.

In 1967, Hampton was identified by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as a radical threat. The FBI tried to subvert his activities in Chicago, sowing disinformation among black progressive groups and placing a counterintelligence operative in the local Panthers. In December 1969, Hampton was shot and killed in his bed during a predawn raid at his Chicago apartment by a tactical unit of the Cook County State's Attorney's Office in conjunction with the Chicago Police Department and the Federal Bureau of Investigation; during the raid, Panther Mark Clark was killed and several seriously wounded. In January 1970, a coroner's jury held an inquest and ruled the deaths of Hampton and Clark to be justifiable homicide. 

A civil lawsuit was later filed on behalf of the survivors and the relatives of Hampton and Clark. It was resolved in 1982 by a settlement of $1.85 million; the City of Chicago, Cook County, and the federal government each paid one-third to a group of nine plaintiffs. Given revelations about the illegal COINTELPRO program and documents associated with the killings, scholars now widely consider Hampton's death an assassination under the FBI's initiative. 

Hampton was born on August 30, 1948, in present-day Summit, Illinois, and grew up in Maywood, both suburbs of Chicago. His parents had moved north from Louisiana, as part of the Great Migration of African Americans in the early 20th century out of the South. They both worked at the Argo Starch Company. As a youth, Hampton was gifted both in the classroom and athletically, and dreamed of playing center field for the New York Yankees. He graduated from Proviso East High School with honors in 1966 and enrolled at Triton Junior College in nearby River Grove, Illinois, where he majored in pre-law. He planned to become more familiar with the legal system to use it as a defense against police. When he and fellow Black Panthers later followed police in his community supervision program, watching out for police brutality, they used his knowledge of law as a defense.

Hampton became active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and assumed leadership of its West Suburban Branch's Youth Council. In his capacity as an NAACP youth organizer, he began to demonstrate natural leadership abilities; from a community of 27,000, he was able to muster a youth group 500-members strong. He worked to get more and better recreational facilities established in the neighborhoods and to improve educational resources for Maywood's impoverished black community. Through his involvement with the NAACP, Hampton hoped to achieve social change through community organizing and nonviolent activism. 

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hampton

 كيرلا

تقع ولاية كيرلا الهندية على الساحل الجنوبي لشبه القارة الهندية.وهي الولاية الاستوائية بالهند، حيث الأمطار الموسمية تتميز كيرلا بطبيعة خاصة تميزها عن بقية أنحاء شبه القارة الهندية من مدنها المهمة مونار و كوتشي.

تطل على المحيط الهندي، وبها القنوات المائية والغابات الاستوائية وبها الجبال الملتفة بالأشجار. ليس هناك صحراء وإنما الأشجار والمراعي الخضراء تلف بكيرالا بكاملها. تمتاز بمناطقها الجميلة الخلابة ذات الطابع الاستوائي. سلطان بتيري هي واحدة من الأماكن السياحية الهامة في ولاية كيرالا.

مراجع

https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7

 Kerala

is a state on the southwestern Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile states of Travancore-Cochin and Madras. Spread over 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the twenty-first largest Indian state by area. It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea  to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Kerala is the thirteenth-largest Indian state by population. It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. 

The Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE or AD). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE. The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100 CE. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala-Travancore State and the Kingdom of Cochin. They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region, in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India, which later became a part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district, Topslip, the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district, Shenkottai and Tenkasi taluks), and the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District) in South Canara (Tulunad) which was a part of Madras State.

The economy of Kerala is the 10th-largest in India with ₹7.82 trillion (US$110 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita GSDP of ₹204,000 (US$2,900).  Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 93.91% in the 2011 census; the highest life expectancy, 77 years; and the highest sex ratio, 1,084 women per 1,000 men. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian, Arab, and European cultures,  developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.

The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the state's income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English and Malayalam. Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, hill stations, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions.

The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',  which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.  The word Kerala is first recorded as Ketalaputo ('son of Chera[s]') in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare.  This contradicts the theory that kera is from 'coconut tree'.  At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word.  The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for 'lake'. 

The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka. Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics.  The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple.  Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'  or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra.

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala

 Rabindranath Tagore

born Robindronath Thakur,  7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941),  sobriquets Gurudev,  was a Bengali poet, writer, music composer, and painter from the Indian subcontinent.  He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Author of the "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse" of Gitanjali,  he became in 1913 the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.  Tagore's poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial; however, his "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal.  He is sometimes referred to as "the Bard of Bengal". 

A Bengali Brahmin from Calcutta with ancestral gentry roots in Burdwan district[9] and Jessore, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old.  At the age of sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by literary authorities as long-lost classics.  By 1877 he graduated to his first short stories and dramas, published under his real name. As a humanist, universalist, internationalist, and ardent anti-nationalist,  he denounced the British Raj and advocated independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance, he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy also endures in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University. 

Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal. Gitanjali (Song Offerings), Gora (Fair-Faced) and Ghare-Baire (The Home and the World) are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. His compositions were chosen by two nations as national anthems: India's "Jana Gana Mana" and Bangladesh's "Amar Shonar Bangla". The Sri Lankan national anthem was inspired by his work. 

The original surname of the Tagores was Kushari. They were Rarhi Brahmins and originally belonged to a village named Kush in the district named Burdwan in West Bengal. The biographer of Rabindranath Tagore, Prabhat Kumar Mukhopadhyaya, wrote on the second page of the first volume of his book "Rabindrajibani O Rabindra Sahitya Prabeshika" that, "The Kusharis were the descendants of Deen Kushari, the son of Bhatta Narayana; Deen was granted a village named Kush (in Burdwan zilla) by Maharaja Kshitisura, he became its chief and came to be known as Kushari

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore

 أندورا

أندورا (بالكتلانية:Andorra)، رسمياً إمارة أندورا (بالكتلانية: Principat d'Andorra)، كما تدعى أيضاً باسم إمارة وديان أندورا  (بالكتلانية: Principat de les Valls d'Andorra)، هي دولة حبيسة صغيرة جنوب غرب أوروبا، تقع في جبال البرانس الشرقية وتحدها إسبانيا وفرنسا. تعد أندورا سادس أصغر دولة في أوروبا حيث أن مساحتها تبلغ 468 كم² (181 ميل²) وبلغ عدد سكانها نحو 84,888 عام 2009. عاصمتها هي أندورا لا فيلا وهي أعلى عاصمة في أوروبا حيث تقع على ارتفاع 1,023 متر. اللغة الرسمية هي الكتلانية على الرغم من استخدام الإسبانية والفرنسية والبرتغالية بشكل شائع.

شكلت الإمارة عام 1278. ويمارس دور العاهل أميران مشتركان هما رئيس الجمهورية الفرنسية وأسقف أورجيل، كتلونيا.

أندورا بلد مزدهر ويرجع ذلك أساساً لقطاعها السياحي، التي يخدم ما يقدر بـ10.2 مليون زائر سنويا، كذلك بسبب وضعها كملاذ ضريبي. أندورا ليست عضواً في الاتحاد الأوروبي، لكن اليورو هو العملة الفعلية. يمتلك شعب أندورا رابع أعلى متوسط مأمول لحياة الإنسان في العالم عند الولادة بنحو 82 سنة.

تقول المعتقدات أن شارل العظيم (شارلمان) عقد ميثاق مع الشعب الأندوري مقابل القتال ضد المسلمين. وكان كونت أرجيل النبيل هو القائد الأعلى للسلطة ويأول الأمر إلى أسقف الأبريشية لأرجيل. وفي عام 988 قام الكونت بوريل الثاني وهو كونت أرجيل بإعطاء أبريشية أرجيل أودية أندورا عندما توسع إلى الجنوب. ومنذ ذلك الحين تُعرف أسقف أرجيل بأسقف سو أرجيل، التي تملك أندورا.

لم يكن لدى أندورا أي نوع من الحماية وكان أسقف أرجيل والمعروف باسم كونت أرجيل، يريد استصلاح أودية أندورا فقرر طلب المساعدة والحماية من حاكم كابوت. وفي 1095، وقع حاكم كابوت قسم مع كونت أرجيل لوضع أندورا تحت سيادته. وتزوجت أرنالدا ابنة أرنو حاكم كابوت من فيكونت كاستيبلو وأصبحا فيكونتا كاستيبلو وسردنيا. وبعد ذلك بسنوات تزوجت أبنتهما إيرمسندا من كونت الفويكس الفرنسي روجر برنر الثاني. وأصبح الكونتان روجر الثاني وأمرساندا الأولى فيكونتا كاستيبلو وسردنياو مالكي أندورا (بالمشاركة مع أسقف أرجيل)

وفي القرن الحادي عشر نشأ نزاع بين أسقف أرجيل وكونت الفويكس. وتمت تسوية النزاع في 1278 بالتوقيع على أول معاهدة بوساطة أراجون، والتي تنص على أن تكون أندورا سيادة مشتركة بين كونت الفويكس (و الذي نقل لقبة في نهاية الأمر إلى رئيس الدولة الفرنسية)، وأسقف أورجيل في كاتالونيا. وذلك أعطى لتلك الولاية الصغيرة سيادتها ووضعها السياسي.

انتقل اللقب على مدى سنوات مرت إلى ملوك نافار. بعد أن أصبح هنري نافارا الملك هنري الرابع ملك فرنسا وأصدر مرسوما (1607) الذي أقر أن رئيس الدولة الفرنسية وأسقف أورغيل يكونا أمراء مشاركين في أندورا. وفي 1812- 1813، قامت الإمبراطورية الفرنسية الأولى بالاستيلاء على كاتلونيا وقسمتها إلى أربعة أقاليم. وقُسمت أيضا أندورا وأصبحت جزء من منطقة بويجسردا (مقاطعة سيجرى)

المراجع

https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7

 Andorra

Catalan: ), officially the Principality of Andorra (Catalan: Principat d'Andorra),  is a sovereign landlocked microstate on the Iberian Peninsula, in the eastern Pyrenees, bordered by France to the north and Spain to the south. Believed to have been created by Charlemagne, Andorra was ruled by the count of Urgell until 988, when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell. The present principality was formed by a charter in 1278. It is known as a principality as it is a diarchy headed by two princes: the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia, Spain, and the President of the French Republic.

Andorra is the sixth-smallest nation in Europe, having an area of 468 square kilometres (181 sq mi) and a population of approximately 77,006  The Andorran people are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent.  Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and the 11th-smallest by population.   Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of 1,023 metres (3,356 feet) above sea level. The official language is Catalan, but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken 

Tourism in Andorra sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually.  Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is its official currency. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1993.  In 2013, Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, according to the Global Burden of Disease Study. 

The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word Andorra is from the Greek historian Polybius (The Histories III, 35, 1) who describes the Andosins, an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars. The word Andosini or Andosins (Ἀνδοσίνοι) may derive from the Basque handia whose meaning is "big" or "giant". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ur (water). 

Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from Arabic al-darra (الدرة), meaning "the thickly wooded place". When the Arabs and Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest, and most of the regions that were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographical difficulty that was presented, received this designation. 

Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese andurrial, which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland". 

The folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of Endor or Andor (where the Midianites had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son Louis le Debonnaire after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell" 

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra

 جايسون موموا

جايسون موموا (بالإنجليزية: Jason momoa)‏ ولد جوزيف جايسون ناماكيها موموا في 1 أغسطس 1979 وهو ممثل وعارض ازياء أمريكي. عرف لدوره لشخصية رونو ديكس (بالإنجليزية: Ronon Dex)‏ للاعوام (2005-2009) في المسلسل التلفزيوي ذو الطابع الخيالي العلمي العسكري ستارغيت أتلانتس.في الآونة الأخيرة أصبح معروفاً لدوره في فيلم عام 2011 كونان البريري. قبل الفيلم ظهر موموا بشخصية كال دروكو في مسلسل صراع العروش

نشأته وتعليمه

في طفولته، ولد موموا في هونولولو، هاواي وتربى في ولاية آيوا مقاطعة Norwalk من قبل والدته كوني موموا. والده كان من سكان هاواي الاصليين.

انطلاقته

في عام 1998, عاد موموا إلى هاواي عندما اكتشفه المصصم العالمي الياباني تاكيو كيوشو (بالإنجليزية: Takeo Kikuchi)‏ وهكذا بدات مهنة كعارض ازياء. في عام 1999 فاز بلقب عارض ازياء هاواي واستضيف في مسابقة ملك جمال هاواي المراهقين. بالإضافة إلى ذلك ظهوره في فيلم ستارغيت أتلانتس والعرش الحديدي، موموا ظهر بشخصية جاسين آاين (بالإنجليزية: Jason Ioane)‏ بين الأعوام 1999-2001 في المسلسل الاكشن-الدرامي بيواتش وبعد ذلك لعب دور البطولة في فيلم كونان البربري، الفيلم عبارة عن إعادة تصوير لفيلم بنفس العنوان لعام 1982 والذي لعب نفس الدور آنذاك الممثل أرنولد شوارزنيجر.

مراجع

https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7