مؤسسة النقد

مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي (المصرف المركزي للمملكة العربية السعودية) أنشئت في 1952. وتعرف أيضا باسم ساما (SAMA) اختصارا لـ(Saudi Arabian Monetary Authority) وهو المصرف المركزي للسعودية، وهو جهاز التنظيم الأكثر جديّة ومهنية في القطاع المصرفي في منطقة الخليج. وأفضل مدير للمخاطر على مستوى البنوك المركزية في العالم للعام 2018 ـ 2019 بحسب لجنة البنوك المركزية. محافظ المؤسسة الحالي هو أحمد بن عبد الكريم الخليفي منذ 30 رجب 1437 هـ الموافق 7 مايو 2016
تاريخ
عندما أنشئت ساما لم يكن للمملكة أي نظام مالي خاص بها. وكانت العملات الأجنبية تستعمل في التعاملات التجارية بالإضافة إلى العملة السعودية الفضية. لذلك كانت أولى مهام ساما بعد إنشائها استحداث نظام مصرفي واستصدار عملة وطنية ورقية. قامت ساما أيضا بتنمية العمل المصرفي واستصدار نظام للمصارف وتنظيم عملها. في مارس 1961 تم التحول إلى الريال السعودي. في السبعينيات والثمانينيات ركزت ساما على السيطرة على التضخم إذ إن الاقتصاد السعودي نما نموا مطردا.

نبذة تاريخية
صدر أول نظام سعودي للنقد في عام 1346 هـ (1928 م) تحت اسم (نظام النقد الحجازي النجدي) وسك بموجبه الريال العربي بحجم ووزن وعيار الريـال العثماني المجيدي الفضي الواسع التداول آنذاك ليحل محله اعتباراً من الأول من شهر شعبان عام 1346 هـ. وفي عام 1354 هـ (1935 م) قررت الحكومة سك ريال فضي جديد يحمل اسم المملكة العربية السعودية بحجم ووزن وعيار الروبية الهندية الفضية.
أنشئت مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي في عهد جلالة الملك عبدالعزيز طيب الله ثراه بموجب مرسومين ملكيين صدرا بتاريخ 25/7/1371 هـ الموافق 20/4/1952 م الأول برقم 30/4/1/1046 وقضى بإنشاء مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي وأن تكون مدينة جدة مقراً لها وتفتح لها فروعاً في المدن والأماكن التي تدعو إليها الحاجة. والثاني برقم 30/4/1/1047 باعتماد وثيقة النظام الأساسي لمؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي الملحقة بالمرسوم والأمر بوضعها موضع التنفيذ. وعين في 23/10/1371 هـ (15/7/1952 م) الأستاذ راسم الخالدي نائباً للمحافظ. وفي 14/11/1371 هـ (5/8/1952 م) صدر المرسومان الملكيان رقم 30/4/1/1743 ورقم 30/4/1/1744 بتعيين السيد جورج بلوارز (George A. Blowers) (أمريكي الجنسية) أول محافظ لمؤسسة النقد، والثاني بتشكيل أول مجلس إدارة للمؤسسة. وبدأت مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي مزاولة عملها في مدينة جدة بتاريخ 14/1/1372 هـ (الموافق 4/10/1952 م).
في 26/1/1372 هـ (16/10/1952 م) صدر مرسوم ملكي باعتماد جنيه الذهب السعودي عملة رسمية للمملكة. وصدرت أول عملة ذهبية سعودية بإسم الملك عبدالعزيز في 3/2/1372 هـ (22/10/1952 م).
أفتتحت المؤسسة فرعاً في مكة المكرمة في 10/7/1372 هـ (26/3/1953 م)، وأفتتحت فرعاً في المدينة المنورة في15/12/1372 هـ (19/8/1953 م).
استقال الأستاذ راسم الخالدي من منصبه نائباً المحافظ اعتباراً من 17/9/1373 هـ (20/5/1954 م)، وعين السيد رالف ستاندش (Ralph Standish) نائباً للمحافظ اعتباراً من 10/1/1374 هـ (7/9/1954 م).
بهدف التيسير على الراغبين في أداء فريضة الحج من عناء حمل عملات معدنية ثقيلة الوزن أصدرت المؤسسة إيصالات الحجاج (الإصدار الأول) من فئة عشرة ريالات في 14/11/1372 هـ (25/7/1953 م)، وفي 15/9/1373 هـ (18/5/1954 م) طُرح الإصدار الثاني من الفئة نفسها, وفي 13/10/1373 هـ (14/6/1954 م) طُرح الإصدار الأول من فئة خمسة ريالات، وفي 23/11/1375 هـ (2/7/1956 م) طُرح الإصدار الأول من فئة ريال واحد.
صدور مرسوم ملكي في 22/2/1374 هـ (20/10/1954 م) بالموافقة على استقالة المحافظ السيد جورج بلوارز (George A. Blowers) وتعيين السيد رالف ستاندش (Ralph Standish) محافظاً للمؤسسة، وعين في 1/3/1374 هـ (29/10/1954 م) السيد معتوق حسنين نائباً للمحافظ.
أفتتحت المؤسسة فرعاً في الدمام في 10/3/ 1374 هـ (7/11/1954 م)، وفرعاً في الطائف في 8/6/1374 هـ (31/1/1955 م)، وفرعاً في الرياض في 16/6/1374 هـ (8/2/1955 م).
صدر نظام النقد الثاني ونظام مراقبة النقد في 18/12/1376 هـ (16/7/1957 م).
أصدرت مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي عام 1376 هـ أول مسكوكات لها من فئات القرش والقرشين والأربعة قروش.
نتيجة للازمة النقدية والمالية التي واجهتها المملكة خلال الفترة 1375 هـ - 1377 هـ عدل نظام مؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي حيث صدر المرسوم الملكي رقم 23 وتاريخ 23/5/1377 هـ (الموافق 15/11/1957 م) الذي أكد على استقلالية المؤسسة وأوكل إدارتها لمجلس إدارة يشرف على عملها وأناط به مسؤولية حسن سير الإدارة وكفاية المؤسسة ومنحه كافة الصلاحيات اللازمة والملائمة لتحقيق هذا الغرض.
صدور نظام النقد الثالث في 23/5/1377 هـ (15/12/1957 م).
في عام 1377 هـ (1958 م) صدر الجنيه الذهبي السعودي باسم الملك سعود.
صدر مرسوم ملكي في 26/7/1377 هـ (15/2/1958 م) بتعيين الأستاذ عابد محمد صالح شيخ نائباً للمحافظ، وفي 28/7/1377 هـ (17/2/1958 م) صدرت موافقة جلالة الملك سعود على استقالة المحافظ رالف ستاندش (Ralph Standish).
صدر مرسوم ملكي في 29/2/1378 هـ (14/9/1958 م) بتعيين السيد أنور علي محافظاً لمؤسسة النقد اعتباراً من 12/9/1377 هـ (1/4/1958 م).
صدر نظام النقد السعودي الرابع (الحالي) في 1/7/1379 هـ (31/12/1959 م) الذي أجاز إصدار العملة الورقية الرسمية المتمتعة بصفة التداول القانوني والإبراء الكامل للديون والمدفوعات الخاصة والعامة، وحصر امتياز طبع وسك وإصدار النقد السعودي في المؤسسة وفرض تغطية كاملة للعملة المصدرة من الذهب والعملات الأجنبية القابلة للتحويل. وادخل النظام العشري للعملة بحيث قسم الريال إلى عشرين قرشاً بدلاً من اثنين وعشرين قرشاً. وأبطل نظام النقد الجديد التعامل بالجنيه السعودي والذهب وإيصالات الحجاج والريالات المعدنية.
طرحت في 1/1/1381 هـ (14/6/1961 م) أوراق نقدية رسمية من فئة ريال، وخمسة وعشرة وخمسين ومئة ريال.
صدر في عام 1381 هـ أو تقرير سنوي للمؤسسة عن عام 1380 هـ والنصف الأول من عام 1381 هـ.
في 4/12/1382 هـ (27/4/1963 م) صدر مرسوم ملكي بتعيين السيد جنيد عبد القادر باجنيد نائباً للمحافظ.
في عام 1385 هـ إنشأ المعهد المصرفي التابع للمؤسسة ومقره في جده ثم انتقل للرياض عام 1399 هـ.
صدر نظام مراقبة البنوك بالمرسوم الملكي رقم م/5 وتاريخ 22/2/1386 هـ (11/6/1966 م).
صدر قرار مجلس الوزراء في 8/1/1392 هـ (23/2/1972 م) بالموافقة على إصدار مسكوكات معدنية.
صدر مرسوم ملكي في 1/8/1392 هـ (09/9/1972 م) بتعيين معالي الأستاذ خالد القصيبي نائباً للمحافظ.
في 13/7/1394 هـ (1/8/1984 م) صدر قرار مجلس الوزراء بعدم إصدار سجلات تجارية لمزاولة مهنة الصرافة لتتمكن اللجان المختصة من دراسة وضع الصرافة. وفي 16/2/1402 هـ (12/12/1981 م) صدر قرار معالي وزير المالية بتنظيم أعمال مهنة الصرافة وإسناد مهمة الرقابة والأشراف عليها إلى مؤسسة النقد، وتضمن القرار التوقف كلياً عن إصدار تراخيص جديدة بمزاولة أعمال الصرافة، وأن يقتصر حق مزاولة أعمال الصرافة على من سبق له الحصول على ترخيص بها من مؤسسة النقد أو على سجل تجاري يسمح له بهذه الأعمال. ونظراً لحاجة السوق السعودي إلى محلات صرافة لبيع وشراء العملات الأجنبية وكذلك حاجة الورثة للاستمرار في مزاولة نشاط الصيرفة بعد وفاة والدهم، صدر قرار مجلس الوزراء في 8/1/1430 هـ (5/1/2009 م) بإلغاء الفقرة رقم (1) من قرار مجلس الوزراء الصادر في 13/7/1394 هـ المتضمن عدم إصدار تراخيص جديدة.
صدر مرسوم ملكي في 12/11/1394 هـ (26/11/1974 م) بتعيين معالي الأستاذ عبدالعزيز القريشي محافظاً للمؤسسة أول سعودي يتبوأ هذا المنصب.
في أواخر عام 1398 هـ انتقل المركز الرئيسي للمؤسسة من جدة إلى الرياض.
أُحيل معالي الأستاذ خالد القصيبي على التقاعد بموجب مرسوم ملكي صدر في 8/5/1400 هـ (25/3/1980 م). وعين معالي الأستاذ حمد بن سعود السياري نائباً للمحافظ بموجب مرسوم ملكي صدر في اليوم نفسه.
صدر أمر ملكي في 14/6/1403 هـ (28/3/1983 م) بالموافقة على إعفاء معالي الأستاذ عبد العزيز القريشي من منصبه بناء على طلبه اعتباراً من الأول من رجب 1403 هـ. وصدر مرسوم ملكي في اليوم نفسه بتكليف الأستاذ حمد السياري القيام بأعمال المحافظ إضافة إلى عمله.
كونت في عام 1405 هـ (1984 م) لجنة وزارية من وزارة المالية والاقتصاد الوطني ووزارة التجارة ومؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي بهدف تنظيم وتطوير سوق الأسهم. وأوكل لمؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي مهمة تشغيل وتنظيم أعمال السوق اليومية. وفي العام نفسه أسست البنوك العاملة في المملكة وبمبادرة من مؤسسة النقد شركة تسجيل الأسهم السعودية بهدف تسوية المعاملات المتعلقة بالأسهم.
بدء العمل رسمياً بالمبنى الجديد للمركز الرئيسي للمؤسسة بتاريخ 16/12/1405 هـ (1/9/1985 م).
صدر أمر ملكي في 16/1/1406 هـ (30/9/1985 م) بتعيين معالي الأستاذ حمد السياري محافظاً لمؤسسة النقد.
صدر في 1/7/1407 هـ (1/3/1987 م) أمر ملكي بتشكيل لجنة في مؤسسة النقد من ثلاثة أشخاص من ذوي الاختصاص لدراسة القضايا بين البنوك وعملائها باسم لجنة تسوية المنازعات المصرفية.
في 22/10/1408 هـ (6/6/1988 م) صدر أمر ملكي بتعيين معالي الدكتور احمد بن عبد الله المالك نائباً للمحافظ.
في رمضان 1410 هـ (أبريل 1990 م) أنشأت مؤسسة النقد شبكة المدفوعات السعودية (SPAN) بهدف تشجيع التعامل الإلكتروني مع النظام المصرفي.
صدر أمر ملكي في 28/2/1416 هـ (26/7/1995 م) بتعيين معالي الدكتور إبراهيم بن عبد العزيز العساف نائباً للمحافظ، وبقي معاليه في هذا المنصب حتى25/5/1416 هـ (19/10/1995 م) حيث عين معاليه وزير دولة وعضو في مجلس الوزراء.
صدر أمر ملكي في 22/6/1416 هـ (15/11/1995 م) بتعيين معالي الدكتور محمد بن سليمان الجاسر نائباً للمحافظ.
في 18/1/1418 هـ (14/5/1997 م) بدأ تشغيل النظام السعودي للتحويلات المالية السريعة المعروف باسم "سريع".
في 21/7/1420 هـ (30/10/1999 م) صدر قرار معالي وزير المالية الذي أوكل لمؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي مهمة الترخيص لشركات التأجير التمويلي وكذلك مراقبتها والإشراف عليها.
أُسندت مهمة الإشراف على قطاع التأمين إلى مؤسسة النقد بموجب المرسوم الملكي الصادر بتاريخ 2/6/1424 هـ (31/7/2003 م) القاضي بالموافقة على نظام مراقبة شركات التأمين التعاوني.
انتقل الإشراف على سوق الأسهم من مؤسسة النقد إلى هيئة السوق المالية اعتباراً من13/5/1425 هـ (1/7/2004 م) بعد صدور المرسوم الملكي بتكوين مجلس هيئة السوق المالية في 1/7/2004 م.
في 19/8/1425 هـ (3/10/2004 م) تم البدء بتشغيل نظام سداد للمدفوعات، وهو نظام يعمل وسيطاً بين الجهات المفوترة والمصارف المحلية، مما يسهل ويسرع عملية الدفع الإلكتروني عبر جميع القنوات المصرفية بالمملكة، بما في ذلك أجهزة الصرف الآلي، والهاتف المصرفي، والإنترنت المصرفية.
صدر أمر ملكي في 19/2/1430 هـ (14/2/2009) بتعيين معالي الدكتور محمد بن سليمان الجاسر محافظاً لمؤسسة النقد اعتباراً من 3/3/1430 هـ (28/2/2009 م).
صدر أمر ملكي في 9/9/1430 هـ (30/8/2009 م) بتعيين معالي الدكتور عبد الرحمن بن عبدالله الحميدي نائباً للمحافظ.
صدر أمر ملكي في 18/1/1433 ه (13/12/2011 م) بتعيين معالي الدكتور فهد بن عبدالله المبارك محافظاً لمؤسسة النقد العربي السعودي.
صدر أمر ملكي في 22/9/1435 هـ (20/7/2014 ) بتعيين معالي الأستاذ عبدالعزيز بن صالح الفريح نائباً للمحافظ على المرتبة الممتازة.
أطلقت مؤسسة النقد في فبراير 2019، برنامج "تنفيذ" وهو يهدف إلى الربط الإلكتروني المباشر بين الأنظمة التقنية للجهات الحكومية، والأنظمة التقنية للبنوك في المملكة.
مهام
القيام بأعمال مصرف الحكومة.
سك وطبع العملة الوطنية الريال السعودي ودعم النقد السعودي وتثبيت قيمته الداخلية والخارجية وتقوية غطاء النقد.
إدارة احتياطيات المملكة من النقد الأجنبي.
إدارة السياسة النقدية للمحافظة على استقرار الأسعار وأسعار الصرف. 
تشجيع نمو النظام المالي وضمان سلامته.
مراقبة المصارف التجارية وأعمال مبادلة العملات.
مراقبة شركات التأمين التعاوني وشركات المهن الحرة المتعلقة بالتأمين. 
مراقبة شركات التمويل.
مراقبة شركات المعلومات الائتمانية.
محافظو المؤسسة
معالي السيد جورج أ. بلوارز (1952 - 1954)
معالي السيد رالف ستانديش (1954 – 1958)
معالي السيد أنور علي (1958 - 1974)
معالي الأستاذ عبد العزيز القريشي (1974 - 1983)
معالي الأستاذ حمد بن سعود السياري (1984 - 2009)
معالي الدكتور محمد بن سليمان الجاسر (2009 - 2011)
معالي الدكتور فهد بن عبد الله المبارك (2011 - 2016)
معالي الدكتور أحمد بن عبد الكريم الخليفي (2016 - الآن)
نواب محافظو المؤسسة
معالي الأستاذ راسم الخالدي (1952-1954)
معالي السيد رالف ستاندش (9/1954-10/1954)
معالي السيد معتوق حسنين (1954-1958)
معالي الأستاذ عابد محمد صالح شيخ (1958-1963)
معالي السيد جنيد عبد القادر باجنيد (1963-1972)
معالي الأستاذ خالد القصيبي (1972–1980)
معالي الأستاذ حمد بن سعود السياري نائباً للمحافظ (1980-1985): ظل المنصب شاغرامن 1985 إلى 1988
معالي الدكتور احمد بن عبد الله المالك (1988-1995)
معالي الدكتور إبراهيم بن عبد العزيز العساف (7/1995-10/1995):لتعيينه وزير دولة وعضو مجلس الوزراء
معالي الدكتور محمد بن سليمان الجاسر (1995-2009)
معالي الدكتور عبد الرحمن بن عبد الله الحميدي (2009-2013)
معالي الأستاذ عبدالعزيز بن صالح الفريح (2014-2018)

Cbs

CBS (an initialism of the network's former name, the Columbia Broadcasting System) is an American English language commercial broadcast television and radio network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major production facilities and operations in New York City (at the CBS Broadcast Center) and Los Angeles (at CBS Television City and the CBS Studio Center).

CBS is sometimes referred to as the Eye Network, in reference to the company's iconic symbol, in use since 1951. It has also been called the "Tiffany Network", alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of William S. Paley.[1] It can also refer to some of CBS's first demonstrations of color television, which were held in a former Tiffany & Co. building in New York City in 1950.[2]

The network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc., a collection of 16 radio stations purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System.[3] Under Paley's guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, and eventually one of the Big Three American broadcast television networks. In 1974 CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. The Westinghouse Electric Corporation acquired the network in 1995, renamed its corporate entity to the current CBS Broadcasting, Inc. in 1997, and eventually adopted the name of the company it had acquired to become CBS Corporation. In 2000 CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971. In late 2005 Viacom split itself into two separate companies and re-established CBS Corporation – through the spin-off of its broadcast television, radio, and select cable television and non-broadcasting assets – with the CBS television network at its core. CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom.

CBS formerly operated the CBS Radio network until 2017, when it merged its radio division with Entercom. Prior to then, CBS Radio mainly provided news and features content for its portfolio owned-and-operated radio stations in large and mid-sized markets, and affiliated radio stations in various other markets. While CBS Corporation shareholders own a 72% stake in Entercom, CBS no longer owns or operates any radio stations directly, though CBS still provides radio news broadcasts to its radio affiliates and the new owners of its former radio stations and licenses the rights to use CBS trademarks under a long-term contract. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated, and affiliated television stations throughout the United States; some of them are also available in Canada via pay-television providers or in border areas over-the-air. The company ranked 197th on the 2018 Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.[4] On August 13, 2019, CEO Shari Redstone announced that Viacom and CBS have agreed to a merger, reuniting the two media giants after 14 years
Early radio years
The origins of CBS date back to January 27, 1927, with the creation of the "United Independent Broadcasters" network in Chicago by New York City talent-agent Arthur Judson. The fledgling network soon needed additional investors though, and the Columbia Phonograph Company, manufacturers of Columbia Records, rescued it in April 1927; as a result, the network was renamed the "Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System" on September 18 of that year. Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18, 1927, with a presentation by the Howard L. Barlow Orchestra[6] from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates.[7]

Operational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, and by the end of 1927, Columbia Phonograph wanted out.[8] In early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the network's Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchheim. None of the three were interested in assuming day-to-day management of the network, so they installed wealthy 26-year-old William S. Paley, son of a Philadelphia cigar family and in-law of the Levys, as president. With the record company out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to "Columbia Broadcasting System".[8] He believed in the power of radio advertising since his family's "La Palina" cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio.[9] By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchhheim share of CBS and became its majority owner with 51% of the business.[10]

Turnaround: Paley's first year
During Louchheim's brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A.H. Grebe's Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC (no relation to the current WABC), which would become the network's flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the signal relocated to 860 kHz.[11] The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, where much of CBS's programming would originate. By the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates.[10]

Paley moved right away to put his network on a firmer financial footing. In the fall of 1928 he entered into talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures, who planned to move into radio in response to RCA's forays into motion pictures with the advent of talkies.[12] The deal came to fruition in September 1929: Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time.[9] The agreement specified that Paramount would buy that same stock back by March 1, 1932, for a flat $5 million, provided CBS had earned $2 million during 1931 and 1932.[12] For a brief time there was talk that the network might be renamed "Paramount Radio", but it only lasted a month – the 1929 stock market crash sent all stock value tumbling. It galvanized Paley and his troops, who "had no alternative but to turn the network around and earn the $2,000,000 in two years.... This is the atmosphere in which the CBS of today was born."[12] The near-bankrupt movie studio sold its CBS shares back to CBS in 1932.[13] In the first year of Paley's watch, CBS's gross earnings more than tripled, going from $1.4 million to $4.7 million.
Much of the increase was a result of Paley's second upgrade to the CBS business plan – improved affiliate relations. There were two types of program at the time: sponsored and sustaining, i.e., unsponsored. Rival NBC paid affiliates for every sponsored show they carried and charged them for every sustaining show they ran.[15] It was onerous for small and medium stations, and resulted in both unhappy affiliates and limited carriage of sustaining programs. Paley had a different idea, designed to get CBS programs emanating from as many radio sets as possible:[14] he would give the sustaining programs away for free, provided the station would run every sponsored show, and accept CBS's check for doing so.[15] CBS soon had more affiliates than either NBC Red or NBC Blue.[16]

Paley was a man who valued style and taste,[17] and in 1929, once he had his affiliates happy and his company's creditworthiness on the mend, he relocated his concern to sleek, new 485 Madison Avenue, the "heart of the advertising community, right where Paley wanted his company to be"[18] and where it would stay until its move to its own Eero Saarinen-designed headquarters, the CBS Building, in 1965. When his new landlords expressed skepticism about the network and its fly-by-night reputation, Paley overcame their qualms by inking a lease for $1.5 million.[18]

CBS takes on the Red and the Blue (1930s)
Since NBC was the broadcast arm of radio set manufacturer RCA, its chief David Sarnoff approached his decisions as both a broadcaster and as a hardware executive; NBC's affiliates had the latest RCA equipment, and were often the best-established stations, or were on "clear channel" frequencies. Yet Sarnoff's affiliates were mistrustful of him. Paley had no such split loyalties: his – and his affiliates' – success rose and fell with the quality of CBS programming.[14]

Paley had an innate, pitch-perfect, sense of entertainment, "a gift of the gods, an ear totally pure",[19] wrote David Halberstam. "[He] knew what was good and would sell, what was bad and would sell, and what was good and would not sell, and he never confused one with another."[20] As the 1930s loomed, Paley set about building the CBS talent stable. The network became the home of many popular musical and comedy stars, among them Jack Benny, ("Your Canada Dry Humorist"), Al Jolson, George Burns & Gracie Allen, and Kate Smith, whom Paley personally selected for his family's La Palina Hour because she was not the type of woman to provoke jealousy in American wives.[21] When, on a mid-ocean voyage, Paley heard a phonograph record of a young unknown crooner, he rushed to the ship's radio room and "cabled" New York to sign Bing Crosby immediately to a contract for a daily radio show.[22]

While the CBS prime-time lineup featured music, comedy and variety shows, the daytime schedule was a direct conduit into American homes – and into the hearts and minds of American women; for many, it was the bulk of their adult human contact during the course of the day. CBS time salesmen recognized early on that this intimate connection could be a bonanza for advertisers of female-interest products.[23] Starting in 1930, astrologer Evangeline Adams would consult the heavens on behalf of listeners who sent in their birthdays, a description of their problems – and a box-top from sponsor Forhan's toothpaste.[24] The low-key murmuring of smooth-voiced Tony Wons, backed by a tender violin, "made him a soul mate to millions of women"[25] on behalf of the R. J. Reynolds tobacco company, whose cellophane-wrapped Camel cigarettes were "as fresh as the dew that dawn spills on a field of clover".[26] The most popular radio-friend of all was M. Sayle Taylor, The Voice Of Experience, though his name was never uttered on air.[26] Women mailed descriptions of the most intimate of relationship problems to The Voice in the tens of thousands per week; sponsors Musterole ointment and Haley's M–O laxative enjoyed sales increases of several hundred percent in just the first month of The Voice Of Experience's run
As the decade progressed, a new genre joined the daytime lineup: serial dramas – soap operas, so named for the products that sponsored them, by way of the ad agencies that actually produced them. Although the form, usually in quarter-hour episodes, proliferated widely in the mid- and late 1930s, they all had the same basic premise: that characters "fell into two categories: 1) those in trouble and 2) those who helped people in trouble. The helping-hand figures were usually older."[28] At CBS, Just Plain Bill brought human insight and Anacin pain reliever into households; Your Family and Mine came courtesy of Sealtest Dairy products; Bachelor's Children first hawked Old Dutch Cleanser, then Wonder Bread; Aunt Jenny's Real Life Stories was sponsored by Spry Vegetable Shortening. Our Gal Sunday (Anacin again), The Romance of Helen Trent (Angélus cosmetics), Big Sister (Rinso laundry soap) and many others filled the daytime ether.
Thanks to its daytime and primetime schedules, CBS prospered in the 1930s. In 1935 gross sales were $19.3 million, yielding a profit of $2.27 million.[30] By 1937 the network took in $28.7 million and had 114 affiliates,[14] almost all of which cleared 100% of network-fed programming, thus keeping ratings, and revenue, high. In 1938 CBS even acquired the American Record Corporation, parent of its one-time investor Columbia Records.[31]

In 1938 NBC and CBS each opened studios in Hollywood to attract the entertainment industry's top talent to their networks – NBC at Radio City on Sunset Boulevard and Vine Street, CBS two blocks away at Columbia Square.[32]

CBS launches an independent news division
The extraordinary potential of radio news showed itself in 1930, when CBS suddenly found itself with a live telephone connection to a prisoner called "The Deacon" who described, from the inside and in real time, a riot and conflagration at the Ohio Penitentiary; for CBS, it was "a shocking journalistic coup".[33] Yet as late as 1934, there was still no regularly scheduled newscast on network radio: "Most sponsors did not want network news programming; those that did were inclined to expect veto rights over it."[34] There had been a longstanding wariness between radio and the newspapers as well; the papers had rightly concluded that the upstart radio business would compete with them on two counts – advertising dollars and news coverage. By 1933 they fought back, many no longer publishing radio schedules for readers' convenience, or allowing "their" news to be read on the air for radio's profit.[35] Radio, in turn, pushed back when urban department stores, newspapers' largest advertisers and themselves owners of many radio stations, threatened to withhold their ads from print.[36] A short-lived attempted truce in 1933 even saw the papers proposing that radio be forbidden from running news before 9:30 a.m., and then only after 9:00 p.m. – and that no news story could air until it was 12 hours old
It was in this climate that Paley set out to "enhance the prestige of CBS, to make it seem in the public mind the more advanced, dignified and socially aware network".[38] He did it through sustaining programming like the New York Philharmonic, the thoughtful drama of Norman Corwin – and an in-house news division to gather and present news, free of fickle suppliers like newspapers and wire services.[38] In the fall of 1934, CBS launched an independent news division, shaped in its first years by Paley's vice-president, former New York Times columnist Ed Klauber, and news director Paul White. Since there was no blueprint or precedent for real-time news coverage, early efforts of the new division used the shortwave link-up CBS had been using for five years[39] to bring live feeds of European events to its American air.

A key early hire was Edward R. Murrow in 1935; his first corporate title was Director of Talks. He was mentored in microphone technique by Robert Trout, the lone full-time member of the News Division, and quickly found himself in a growing rivalry with boss White.[40] Murrow was glad to "leave the hothouse atmosphere of the New York office behind"[41] when he was dispatched to London as CBS's European Director in 1937, a time when the growing Hitler menace underscored the need for a robust European Bureau. Halberstam described Murrow in London as "the right man in the right place in the right era".[42] Murrow began assembling the staff of broadcast journalists – including William L. Shirer, Charles Collingwood, Bill Downs, and Eric Sevareid – who would become known as the "Murrow Boys". They were "in [Murrow's] own image, sartorially impeccable, literate, often liberal, and prima donnas all".[43] They covered history in the making, and sometimes made it themselves: on March 12, 1938, Hitler boldly annexed nearby Austria and Murrow and Boys quickly assembled coverage with Shirer in London, Edgar Ansel Mowrer in Paris, Pierre Huss in Berlin, Frank Gervasi in Rome and Trout in New York.[44] This bore the News Round-Up format, which is still ubiquitous today in broadcast news.

Murrow's nightly reports from the rooftops during the dark days of the London Blitz galvanized American listeners: even before Pearl Harbor, the conflict became "the story of the survival of Western civilization, the most heroic of all possible wars and stories. He was indeed reporting on the survival of the English-speaking peoples."[45] With his "manly, tormented voice",[46] Murrow contained and mastered the panic and danger he felt, thereby communicating it all the more effectively to his audience.[46] Using his trademark self-reference "This reporter",[47] he did not so much report news as interpret it, combining simplicity of expression with subtlety of nuance.[46] Murrow himself said he tried "to describe things in terms that make sense to the truck driver without insulting the intelligence of the professor".[46] When he returned home for a visit late in 1941, Paley threw an "extraordinarily elaborate reception"[48] for Murrow at the Waldorf-Astoria. Of course, its goal was more than just honoring CBS's latest "star" – it was an announcement to the world that Mr. Paley's network was finally more than just a pipeline carrying other people's programming: it had now become a cultural force in its own right.[49]

Once the war was over and Murrow returned for good, it was as "a superstar with prestige and freedom and respect within his profession and within his company".[50] He possessed enormous capital within that company, and as the unknown form of television news loomed large, he would spend it freely, first in radio news, then in television, taking on Senator Joseph McCarthy first, then eventually William S. Paley himself,[51] and with a foe that formidable, even the vast Murrow account would soon run dry.

Panic: The War of the Worlds radio broadcast
On October 30, 1938, CBS gained a taste of infamy when The Mercury Theatre on the Air broadcast a radio adaptation of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, performed by Orson Welles. Its unique format, a contemporary version of the story in the form of faux news broadcasts, had panicked many listeners into believing invaders from Mars were actually invading and devastating Grover's Mill, New Jersey, despite three disclaimers during the broadcast that it was a work of fiction. The flood of publicity after the broadcast had two effects: an FCC ban on faux news bulletins within dramatic programming, and sponsorship for The Mercury Theatre on the Air – the former sustaining program became The Campbell Playhouse to sell soup.[52] Welles, for his part, summarized the episode as "the Mercury Theatre's own radio version of dressing up in a sheet and jumping out of a bush and saying 'Boo!'"[53]

CBS recruits Edmund A. Chester
Before the United States joined World War II, in 1940, CBS recruited Edmund A. Chester from his position as Bureau Chief for Latin America at the Associated Press to serve as Director of Latin American Relations and Director of Short Wave Broadcasts for the CBS radio network. In this capacity, Chester coordinated the development of the Network of the Americas (La Cadena de las Americas) with the Department of State, the Office for Inter-American Affairs (as chaired by Nelson Rockefeller) and Voice of America as part of President Roosevelt's support for Pan-Americanism during World War II.[54] This network provided vital news and cultural programming throughout South America and Central America during the crucial World War II era and fostered diplomatic relations between the United States and the less developed nations of the continent. It featured such popular radio broadcasts as Viva América[55] which showcased leading musical talent from both North and South America including John Serry Sr., as accompanied by the CBS Pan American Orchestra under the musical direction of Alfredo Antonini.[56] The post-war era also marked the beginning of CBS's dominance in the field of radio as well.[57]

Zenith of network radio (1940s)
As 1939 wound down, Bill Paley announced that 1940 would "be the greatest year in the history of radio in the United States."[58] He turned out to be right by more than anyone could imagine: the decade of the 1940s would indeed be the apogee of network radio by every gauge. Nearly 100% of the advertisers who made sponsorship deals in 1939 renewed their contracts for 1940; manufacturers of farm tractors made radios standard equipment on their machines.[59] Wartime rationing of paper limited the size of newspapers – and effectively advertisements – and when papers turned them away, they migrated to radio sponsorship.[60] A 1942 act by Congress made advertising expenses a tax benefit[60] and that sent even automobile and tire manufacturers – who had no products to sell since they had been converted to war production – scurrying to sponsor symphony orchestras and serious drama on radio.[61] In 1940, only one-third of radio programs were sponsored, while two-thirds were sustaining; by the middle of the decade, the statistics had swapped – two out of three shows now had cash-paying sponsors and only one-third were sustaining.[62]

The CBS of the 1940s was vastly different from that of the early days; many of the old guard veterans had died, retired or simply left the network.[63] No change was greater than that in Paley himself: he had become difficult to work for, and had "gradually shifted from leader to despot".[63] He spent much of his time seeking social connections and in cultural pursuits; his "hope was that CBS could somehow learn to run itself".[63] His brief to an interior designer remodeling his townhouse included a requirement for closets that would accommodate 300 suits, 100 shirts and had special racks for a hundred neckties
As Paley grew more remote, he installed a series of buffer executives who sequentially assumed more and more power at CBS: first Ed Klauber, then Paul Kesten, and finally Frank Stanton. Second only to Paley as the author of CBS's style and ambitions in its first half-century, Stanton was "a magnificent mandarin who functioned as company superintendent, spokesman, and image-maker".[65] He had come to the network in 1933 after sending copies of his Ph.D. thesis "A Critique Of Present Methods and a New Plan for Studying Radio Listening Behavior" to CBS top brass and they responded with a job offer.[66] He scored an early hit with his study "Memory for Advertising Copy Presented Visually vs. Orally," which CBS salesmen used to great effect bringing in new sponsors.[66] In 1946, Paley appointed Stanton as President of CBS and promoted himself to Chairman. Stanton's colorful, but impeccable, wardrobe – slate-blue pinstripe suit, ecru shirt, robin's egg blue necktie with splashes of saffron – made him, in the mind of one sardonic CBS vice-president, "the greatest argument we have for color television".[67]

Despite the influx of advertisers and their cash, or perhaps because of them, the 1940s were not without bumps for the radio networks. The biggest challenge came in the form of the FCC's chain broadcasting investigation – the "monopoly probe", as it was often called.[68] Though it started in 1938, the investigation only gathered steam in 1940 under new-broom chairman James L. Fly.[69] By the time the smoke had cleared in 1943, NBC had already spun off its Blue Network, which became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). CBS was also hit, though not as severely: Paley's brilliant 1928 affiliate contract which had given CBS first claim on local stations' air during sponsored time – the network option – came under attack as being restrictive to local programming.[70] The final compromise permitted the network option for three out of four hours during certain dayparts, but the new regulations had virtually no practical effect, since most all stations accepted the network feed, especially the sponsored hours that earned them money.[70] Fly's panel also forbade networks from owning artists' representation bureaus, so CBS sold its bureau to Music Corporation of America and it became Management Corporation of America
On the air, the war affected almost every show. Variety shows wove patriotism through their comedy and music segments; dramas and soaps had characters join the service and go off to fight. Even before hostilities commenced in Europe, one of the most played songs on radio was Irving Berlin's "God Bless America", popularized by CBS personality Kate Smith.[72] Although an Office of Censorship sprang up within days of Pearl Harbor, censorship would be totally voluntary. A few shows submitted scripts for review; most did not.[73] The guidelines that the Office did issue banned weather reports (including announcement of sports rainouts), news about troop, ship or plane movements, war production and live man-on-the-street interviews. The ban on ad-libbing caused quizzes, game shows and amateur hours to wither for the duration.[73]

Surprising was "the granite permanence" of the shows at the top of the ratings.[74] The vaudevillians and musicians who were hugely popular after the war were the same stars who had been huge in the 1930s: Jack Benny, Bing Crosby, Burns and Allen, and Edgar Bergen all had been on the radio almost as long as there had been network radio.[75] A notable exception to this was relative newcomer Arthur Godfrey who, as late as 1942, was still doing a local morning show in Washington, D.C.[76] Godfrey, who had been a cemetery-lot salesman and a cab driver, pioneered the style of talking directly to the listener as an individual, with a singular "you" rather than phrases like "Now, folks..." or "Yes, friends...".[77] His combined shows contributed as much as 12% of all CBS revenues; by 1948, he was pulling down $500,000 a year.[76]

In 1947, Paley, still the undisputed "head talent scout" of CBS,[65] led a much-publicized "talent raid" on NBC. One day, while Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll were hard at work at NBC writing their venerable Amos and Andy show, a knock came on the door; it was Paley himself, with an astonishing offer: "Whatever you are getting now I will give you twice as much."[78] Capturing NBC's cornerstone show was enough of a coup, but Paley repeated in 1948 with longtime NBC stars Edgar Bergen, Charlie McCarthy and Red Skelton, as well as former CBS defectors Jack Benny, radio's top-rated comedian, and Burns and Allen. Paley achieved this rout with a legal agreement reminiscent of his 1928 contract that caused some NBC radio affiliates to jump ship and join CBS.[78] CBS would buy the stars' names as a property, in exchange for a large lump sum and a salary.[79] The plan relied on the vastly different tax rates between income and capital gains, so not only would the stars enjoy more than twice their income after taxes, but CBS would preclude any NBC counterattack because CBS owned the performers' names.[78]

As a result of this, Paley got in 1949 something he had sought for 20 years: CBS finally beat NBC in the ratings.[80] But it was not just to one-up rival Sarnoff that Paley led his talent raid; he, and all of radio, had their eye on the coming force that threw a shadow over radio throughout the 1940s – television.

Prime time radio gives way to television (1950s)
In the spring of 1940, CBS staff engineer Peter Goldmark devised a system for color television that CBS management hoped would leapfrog the network over NBC and its existing black-and-white RCA system.[81][82] The CBS system "gave brilliant and stable colors", while NBC's was "crude and unstable but 'compatible'".[83] Ultimately, the FCC rejected the CBS system because it was incompatible with RCA's; that, and the fact that CBS had moved to secure many UHF, not VHF, television licenses, left CBS flatfooted in the early television age.[84] In 1946, only 6,000 television sets were in operation, most in greater New York City where there were already three stations; by 1949, the number had increased to 3 million sets, and by 1951, had risen to 12 million.[85] 64 American cities had television stations, though most of them only had one.[86]

Radio continued to be the backbone of the company, at least in the early 1950s, but it was "a strange, twilight period" where some cities had often multiple television stations which siphoned the audience from radio, while other cities (such as Denver and Portland, Oregon) had no television stations at all. In those areas, as well as rural areas and some entire states, network radio remained the sole, nationally broadcast service.[75] NBC's venerable Fred Allen saw his ratings plummet when he was pitted against upstart ABC's game show Stop The Music!; within weeks, he was dropped by longtime sponsor Ford Motor Company and was shortly gone from the scene.[87] Radio powerhouse Bob Hope's ratings plunged from a 23.8 share in 1949 to 5.4 in 1953.[88] By 1952, "death seemed imminent for network radio" in its familiar form;[89] most telling of all, the big sponsors were eager for the switch.

Gradually, as the television network took shape, radio stars began to migrate to the new medium. Many programs ran on both media while making the transition. The radio soap opera The Guiding Light moved to television in 1952 and would run for another 57 years; Burns & Allen, back "home" from NBC, made the move in 1950; Lucille Ball a year later; Our Miss Brooks in 1952 (though it continued simultaneously on radio for its full television life). The high-rated Jack Benny Program ended its radio run in 1955, and Edgar Bergen's Sunday night show went off the air in 1957. When CBS announced in 1956 that its radio operations had lost money, while the television network had made money,[90] it was clear where the future lay. When the soap opera Ma Perkins went off the air on November 25, 1960, only eight, relatively minor series remained. Prime time radio ended on September 30, 1962, when Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar and Suspense aired for the final time.[91]

CBS's radio programming after 1972
The retirement of Arthur Godfrey in April 1972 marked the end of long-form programming on CBS radio; programming thereafter consisted of hourly news summaries and news features, known in the 1970s as Dimension, and commentaries, including the Spectrum series that evolved into the "Point/Counterpoint" feature on the television network's 60 Minutes and First Line Report, a news and analysis feature delivered by CBS correspondents. The network also continued to offer traditional radio programming through its weeknightly CBS Radio Mystery Theater, the lone sustained holdout of dramatic programming, from 1974 to 1982, though shorter runs were given to the General Mills Radio Adventure Theater and the Sears Radio Theater in the 1970s; otherwise, most new dramatic radio was carried on public and to some extent religious stations.[92] The CBS Radio Network continues to this day, offering hourly newscasts, including its centerpiece CBS World News Roundup in the morning and evening, weekend sister program CBS News Weekend Roundup, the news-related feature segment The Osgood File, What's In the News, a one-minute summary of one story, and various other segments such as commentary from Seattle radio personality Dave Ross, tip segments from various other sources, and technology coverage from CBS Interactive property CNET.

On November 17, 2017 CBS Radio was sold to Entercom becoming the last of the original Big Four radio network to be owned by its founding company.[93] Although the CBS parent itself ceased to exist when it was acquired by Westinghouse Electric in 1995, CBS Radio continued to be run by CBS until its sale to Entercom. Prior to its acquisition, ABC Radio was sold to Citadel Broadcasting in 2007 (and is now a part of Cumulus Media) while Mutual (now defunct) and NBC Radio were acquired by Westwood One in the 1980s (Westwood One and CBS were under common ownership from 1993 to 2007; the former would be acquired outright by Dial Global in October 2011).

Television years: expansion and growth

علاء عبد الفتاح

علاء أحمد سيف الإسلام عبد الفتاح حمد، المعروف باسم علاء عبد الفتاح (18 نوفمبر 1981 - ) مدون ومبرمج وناشط حقوقي مصري، ومؤسس «مدونة منال وعلاء» بالاشتراك مع زوجته المدونة منال حسن. يعمل أيضاً بتطوير نسخ عربية من البرامج الحاسوبية الهامة.

علاء عبد الفتاح هو ابن الناشطين السياسيين المصريين الراحل أحمد سيف الإسلام، المحامي والحقوقي المصري والمدير التنفيذي السابق لمركز هشام مبارك للقانون، والدكتورة ليلى سويف أستاذة الرياضيات بكلية علوم جامعة القاهرة.
الحياة الشخصية
متزوج من المدوَّنة منال بهي الدين حسن وولد طفله الأوَّل أثناء وجوده في سجن طرَّة معتقلا ومتهما على خلفية أحداث ماسبيرو. كثير المُشاركات في النشاطات الإنسانية والحقوقية. سمَّى طفله الأوّل خالد، تيمنا بخالد سعيد الشخصية المصرية الشهيرة التي كان لها دور كبير في حدوث الثورة المصرية.

بدأ الناشط الحقوقي “علاء عبد الفتاح” مشواره العملي مع زوجته كمبرمج في مجال تكنولوجيا المعلومات، وفي 20 مارس عام 2004م قاما بإطلاق مدونه تحت عنوان “دلو مليء بالمعلومات” أو المعروفة باسم “دلو معلومات منال وعلاء”، لتغطية الأخبار دون الاعتماد على صحفيين مختصين وخبراء في مجال الصحافة مما يشكل دعماً للصحافة الشعبية المحلية، والتي فازت بجائزة منظمة مراسلون بلا حدود.

النشاط السياسي
فترة حكم حسني مبارك
في يوم الأحد 7 مايو 2006، وأثناء وقفة احتجاجية سلمية من أجل استقلال القضاء المصري، اعتقل علاء مع 10 آخرين من المدونين ونشطاء الديمقراطية، مما أدى إلى اندلاع احتجاجات داخل وخارج مصر، وتأسست مدونة جديدة عنوانها "الحرية لعلاء" (بالإنجليزية: Free Alaa)، خصصت للمطالبة بإطلاق سراح علاء عبد الفتاح.

أدى قمع الحريات واعتقال مجموعة من الناشطين السياسيين من بينهم علاء عبد الفتاح إلى اندلاع الاحتجاجات داخل وخارج مصر، كما تأسست مدونة جديدة بعنوان “الحرية لعلاء” للمطالبة بإطلاق سراحه، وفي 20 يونيو 2006 بعد أن قضى في السجن 45 يوماً أطلق سراحه وحُكم له بالبراءة من قضية سب رفعها القاضي “عبد الفتاح مراد” لحجب 49 موقعاً على شبكة الإنترنت من ضمنها موقعه وقد صرحت زوجته منال حسن في ذلك اليوم لجريدة الإندبندنت البريطانية قائلة "لا تراجع بعد اليوم، سوف نستمر في أنشطتنا السياسية".

فترة حكم المجلس العسكري
في 30 أكتوبر، 2011، قررت النيابة العسكرية في مدينة نصر حبس علاء على ذمة التحقيق لمدة 15 يوماً، على خلفية اتهامه بالتحريض والاشتراك في التعدي على أفراد القوات المسلحة وإتلاف معدات تخص القوات المسلحة والتظاهر والتجمهر وتكدير الأمن والسلم العام في أحداث ماسبيرو، والتي أسفرت عن مقتل أكثر من 25 قبطي بعد الاشتباك مع قوات الجيش. بعد أن رفض الاعتراف بشرعية المحاكمة العسكرية له كمدني، ورفض الإجابة على أسئلة النيابة العسكرية له.، ، ثم حُوِّل لاحقًا إلى نيابة أمن الدولة العليا، ليولد ابنه الأول "خالد" أثناء استمرار سجنه على ذمة التحقيق، بعد أن رفضت نيابة أمن الدولة التماسه بالإفراج عنه لحضور ولادة ابنه. في يوم الأحد 25 ديسمبر قرر قاضى التحقيقات الإفراج عن علاء عبد الفتاح.

فترة حكم محمد مرسي
فترة حكم عبدالفتاح السيسي
في 28 نوفمبر 2013 اعتقل علاء بتهمة التحريض على التظاهر ضد الدستور الجديد أمام مجلس الشورى. قام عشرون من رجال الشرطة باقتحام منزل علاء، وكسر الباب، ومصادرة أجهزة الحاسب الخاصة والتليفونات المحمولة الخاصة بالعائلة. عندما سأل علاء عن المذكرة القضائية الخاصة بالقبض عليه، قامت الشرطة بالإعتداء عليه جسديًا وعلى زوجته. في 23 فبراير 2015 أصدرت محكمة مصرية حكمها على علاء بالسجن لمدة خمس سنوات بتهم التظاهر بدون تصريح.

الميريا

اتحاد آلميريا الرياضي أو اتحاد ديبورتيفو آلمريا (بالإسبانية: Unión Deportiva Almería, S.A.D.) أو كما يعرف ب نادي ألميريا (بالإسبانية: UD Almería) هو نادي كرة قدم إسباني من مدينة المرية في منطقة أندلوسيا.

تأسس في 26 يوليو 1989 إثر دمج ناديي نادي آلمريا الرياضي (بالإسبانية: Club Polideportivo Almería) والمعروف باسم نادي آلمريا (بالإسبانية: CP Almería)، ونادي مجموعة ديبورتيفو آلمريا (بالإسبانية: Agrupación Deportiva Almería) والمعروف باسم ديبورتيفو آلمريا (بالإسبانية: AD Almería)، الذان مثلا مدينة المرية سابقاً، حيث دمجا تحت الاسم الحالي اتحاد آلميريا الرياضي (بالإسبانية: AD. Almería) والمعروف باسم اتحاد ديبورتيفو آلمريا (بالإسبانية: UD Almería)

يخوض مبارياته الرسمية على ملعب مديترنيانو والذي يعني "البحر المتوسط" حيث تم افتتاحه عام 2004، وهو يتسع لحوالي 20 ألف متفرج.
تركي آل الشيخ
في 2 أغسطس 2019، اشترى النادي رسميًا تركي آل الشيخ بقيمة 20 مليون يورو، ليصبح أكبر مساهم ومالك ورئيس للنادي.

Navaratri

Navaratri[a] is a Hindu festival that spans nine nights (and ten days) and is celebrated every year in the autumn. It is observed for different reasons and celebrated differently in various parts of the Indian subcontinent.[3][1] Theoretically, there are four seasonal Navaratri. However, in practice, it is the post-monsoon autumn festival called Sharada Navaratri that is the most observed in the honor of the divine feminine Amba/AmbeDevi (Durga). The festival is celebrated in the bright half of the Hindu calendar month Ashvin, which typically falls in the Gregorian months of September and October.[3][4]

In the eastern and northeastern states of India, the Durga Puja is synonymous with Navaratri, wherein goddess Durga battles and emerges victorious over the buffalo demon to help restore Dharma. In the northern and western states, the festival is synonymous with "Rama Lila" and Dussehra that celebrates the battle and victory of god Rama over the demon king Ravana.[1] In southern states, the victory of different goddesses, of Rama or Saraswati is celebrated. In all cases, the common theme is the battle and victory of Good over Evil based on a regionally famous epic or legend such as the Ramayana or the Devi Mahatmya.[3][4]

Celebrations include stage decorations, recital of the legend, enacting of the story, and chanting of the scriptures of Hinduism. The nine days are also a major crop season cultural event, such as competitive design and staging of pandals, a family visit to these pandals and the public celebration of classical and folk dances of Hindu culture.[5][6][7] On the final day, called the Vijayadashami or Dussehra, the statues are either immersed in a water body such as river and ocean, or alternatively the statue symbolizing the evil is burnt with fireworks marking evil's destruction. The festival also starts the preparation for one of the most important and widely celebrated holidays, Diwali, the festival of lights, which is celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami or Dussehra
According to some Hindu texts such as the Shakta and Vaishnava Puranas, Navaratri theoretically falls twice or four times a year. Of these, the Sharada Navaratri near autumn equinox (September-October) is the most celebrated and the Vasanta Navaratri near spring equinox (March-April) is next most significant to the culture of Indian subcontinent. In all cases, Navaratri falls in the bright half of the Hindu luni-solar months. The celebrations vary by region, leaving much to the creativity and preferences of the Hindu.[4][10][11]

Sharada Navaratri: the most celebrated of the four Navaratri, named after sharada which means autumn. It is observed the lunar month of Ashvin (post-monsoon, September–October). In many regions, the festival falls after autumn harvest, and in others during harvest.
Vasanta Navaratri: the second most celebrated, named after vasanta which means spring. It is observed the lunar month of Chaitra (post-winter, March–April). In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest.[where? — see talk page]
The other two Navratris are observed regionally or by individuals:[12]

Magha Navaratri: in Magha (January–February), winter season. The fifth day of this festival is often independently observed as Vasant Panchami or Basant Panchami, the official start of spring in the Hindu tradition wherein goddess Saraswati is revered through arts, music, writing, kite flying. In some regions, the Hindu god of love, Kama is revered.[13][14]
Ashada Navaratri: in Ashadha (June–July), start of the monsoon season.
The Sharada Navaratri commences on the first day (pratipada) of the bright fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvini. The festival is celebrated for nine nights once every year during this month, which typically falls in the Gregorian months of September and October. The exact dates of the festival are determined according to the Hindu luni-solar calendar, and sometimes the festival may be held for a day more or a day less depending on the adjustments for sun and moon movements and the leap year.[3][10][5]

The festivities extend beyond goddess Durga and god Rama. Various other goddesses such as Saraswati and Lakshmi, gods such as Ganesha, Kartikeya, Shiva and Krishna are regionally revered. For example, a notable pan-Hindu tradition during Navaratri is the adoration of Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music, and arts through Ayudha Puja.[15] On this day, which typically falls on the ninth day of Navaratri after the Good has won over Evil through Durga or Rama, peace and knowledge is celebrated. Warriors thank, decorate and worship their weapons, offering prayers to Saraswati.[16] Musicians upkeep their musical instruments, play and pray to them. Farmers, carpenters, smiths, pottery makers, shopkeepers and all sorts of tradespeople similarly decorate and worship their equipment, machinery, and tools of trade. Students visit their teachers, express respect and seek their blessings.[15][17] This tradition is particularly strong in South India, but is observed elsewhere too.[17]

Significance of Each Day
The festival is associated to the prominent battle that took place between Durga and demon Mahishasura and celebrates the victory of Good over Evil.[18] These nine days are solely dedicated to Goddess Durga and her nine Avatars.[19] Each day is associated to an incarnation of the goddess:[20][18][21][22]

Day 1: Shailaputri
Known as Pratipada, this day is associated to Shailaputri (literally "Daughter of Mountain"), an incarnation of Parvati. It is in this form that the Goddess is worshiped as the consort of Shiva; she is depicted as riding the bull, Nandi, with a trishula in her right hand and lotus in her left. Shailaputri is considered to be the direct incarnation of Mahakali. The color of the day is red, which depicts action and vigor..

Day 2: Brahmacharini
On Dwitiya, Goddess Brahmacharini, another incarnation of Parvati, is worshiped. In this form, Parvati became Sati, her unmarried self. Brahmacharini is worshiped for emancipation or moksha and endowment of peace and prosperity. Depicted as walking bare feet and holding a japamala and kamandal in her hands, she symbolizes bliss and calm. Blue is the color code of this day. Blue colour depicts tranquility yet strong energy.

Day 3: Chandraghanta
Tritiya commemorates the worship of Chandraghanta - the name derived from the fact that after marrying Shiva, Parvati adorned her forehead with half-chandra (lit. moon). She is the embodiment of beauty and is also symbolic of bravery. Yellow is the colour of the third day, which is a vivacious colour and can pep up everyone's mood.

Day 4: Kushmanda
Goddess Kushmanda is worshiped on Chaturthi. Believed to be the creative power of universe, Kushmanda associated to the endowment of vegetation on earth and hence, the color of the day is Green. She is depicted as having eight arms and sits on a Tiger.

Day 5: Skandmata
Skandamata, the goddess worshiped on Panchami, is the mother of Skanda (or Kartikeya). The color Grey is symbolic of the transforming strength of a mother when her child is confronted with danger. She is depicted riding a ferocious lion, having four arms and holding her baby.

Day 6: Katyayani
Born to a sage, Katyayana, she is an incarnation of Durga and is shown to exhibit courage which is symbolized by the color Orange. Known as the warrior goddess, she is considered one of the most violent forms of Goddess Parvati. In this avatar, Kātyāyanī rides a lion and has four hands.

Day 7: Kalaratri
Considered the most ferocious form of Goddess Durga, Kalaratri is revered on Saptami. It is believed that Parvati removed her fair skin to kill the demons Sumbha and Nisumbha. The color of the day is White. On Saptami, the Goddess appears in a white colour attire with a lot of rage in her fiery eyes, her skin turns black. The white colour portrays prayer and peace, and ensures the devotees that the Goddess will protect them from harm.

Day 8: Mahagauri
Mahagauri symbolizes intelligence and peace. The color associated to this day is Pink which depicts optimism.

Day 9: Sidhidatri
On the last day of the festival also known as Navami, people pray to Siddhidhatri. Sitting on a lotus, she is believed to possess and bestows all type of Siddhis. Here she has four hands. Also known as Saraswati Devi. The light blue colour of the day portrays an admiration towards nature's beauty.

Regional Practices
Navaratri is celebrated in different ways throughout India.[23] Some fast, others feast. Some revere the same Mother Goddess but different aspects of her, while others revere avatars of Vishnu, particularly of Rama.[10] The Chaitra Navaratri culminates in Rama Navami on the ninth day,[24] and the Sharada Navaratri culminates in Durga Puja and Dussehra.[10]

The Rama Navami remembers the birth of Rama, preceded by nine days of Ramayana recital particularly among the Vaishnava temples.[24] In the past, Shakta Hindus used to recite Durga's legends during the Chaitra Navaratri, but this practice around the spring equinox has been declining. For most contemporary Hindus, it is the Navaratri around the autumn equinox that is the major festival and the one observed. To Bengali Hindus and to Shakta Hindus outside of eastern and northeastern states of India, the term Navaratri implies Durga Puja in the warrior goddess aspect of Devi. In other traditions of Hinduism, the term Navaratri implies something else or the celebration of Hindu goddess but in her more peaceful forms such as Saraswati – the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music, and other arts.[10][23] In Nepal, Navaratri is called Dasain, and is a major annual homecoming and family event that celebrates the bonds between elders and youngsters with Tika Puja, as well as across family and community members.[24]

Eastern India, West Bengal & Nepal
Main article: Durga Puja


Two Durga Puja pandals in Kolkata during Navratri
The Navaratri is celebrated as the Durga Puja festival in West Bengal. It is the most important annual festival to Bengali Hindus and a major social and public event in eastern and northeastern states of India, where it dominates the religious life.[25][26] The occasion is celebrated with thousands[27] of temporary stages called pandals are built in community squares, roadside shrines and large Durga temples in West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Nepal, Assam, Tripura and nearby regions. It is also observed by some Shakta Hindus as a private, home-based festival.[26][28][29] Durga Puja festival marks the battle of goddess Durga with the shape-shifting, deceptive and powerful buffalo demon Mahishasura, and her emerging victorious.[30][31]

The last five days of Navratri mark the popular practices during Durga Puja. The festival begins with Mahalaya, a day where Shakta Hindus remember the loved ones who have died, as well the advent of the warrior goddess Durga.[32][33] The next most significant day of Durga Puja celebrations is the sixth day, called Shashthi where the local community welcomes the goddess Durga Devi and festive celebrations are inaugurated. On the seventh day (Saptami), eighth (Ashtami) and ninth (Navami), Durga along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya are revered and these days mark the main Puja (worship) with recitation of the scriptures, the legends of Durga in Devi Mahatmya and social visits by families to elaborately decorated and lighted up temples and pandals (theatre like stages).[34][35][36] After the nine nights, on the tenth day called Vijayadashami, a great procession is held where the clay statues are ceremoniously walked to a river or ocean coast for a solemn goodbye to Durga. Many mark their faces with vermilion (sindooram) or dress in something red. It is an emotional day for some devotees, and the congregation sings emotional goodbye songs.[37][38] After the procession, Hindus distribute sweets and gifts, visit their friends and family members.[39]

North India

An 1834 sketch by James Prinsep showing Rama Leela Mela during Navaratri in Benares.
In North India, Navaratri is marked by the numerous Ramlila events, where episodes from the story of Rama and Ravana are enacted by teams of artists in rural and urban centers, inside temples or in temporarily constructed stages. This Hindu tradition of festive performance arts was inscribed by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity" in 2008.[40] The festivities, states UNESCO, include songs, narration, recital and dialogue based on the Hindu text Ramacharitmanas by Tulsidas. It is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.[40]

The festival and dramatic enactment of the virtues versus vices filled story is organized by communities in hundreds of small villages and towns, attracting a mix of audience from different social, gender and economic backgrounds. In many parts, the audience and villagers join in and participate spontaneously, some helping the artists, others helping with stage set up, create make-up, effigies and lights.[40]

The most famous Navaratri festival is organized at Katra in Jammu Province. It is an annual event promoted by Directorate of Tourism, Jammu and Shri Mata Vaishno Deviji Shrine Board. Hundreds of thousands of devotees pay their attendance at Katra for the festival.

Navaratri has historically been a prominent ritual festival for kings and military of a kingdom.[1] At the end of the Navratri, comes Dussehra, where the effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakarna, and Meghanada are burnt to celebrate the victory of good (Rama) over evil forces on Vijayadashami.[41]


Navratri is also a festival for feasting with friends and family.
Elsewhere, during this religious observance, goddess Durga's war against deception and evil is remembered. A pot is installed (ghatasthapana) at a sanctified place at home. A lamp is kept lit in the pot for nine days. The pot symbolises the universe. The uninterrupted lit lamp symbolizes the Adishakti, i.e. Durga Devi.[42]

Bihar
In parts of Bihar, goddess Durga is revered during the autumn Navaratri. In other parts, such near Sitamarhi close to Nepal border, the spring Navratri attracts a large Ramanavami fair which marks the birth of Lord Rama as well as a reverence for his wife Sita who legends place was born at Sitamarhi. It is the largest cattle trading fair, and attracts a large handicrafts market in pottery, kitchen and houseware, as well as traditional clothing. Festive performance arts and celebrations are held at the local Hindu temple dedicated to Sita, Hanuman, Durga, and Ganesha.[43][44]

Gujarat
Navaratri in Gujarat is the state's main festival. The traditional celebrations includes fasting for a day, or partially each of the nine days such as by not eating grains or just taking liquid foods, in remembrance of one of nine aspects of Shakti goddess. The prayers are dedicated to a symbolic clay pot called garbo, as a remembrance of womb of the family and universe. The clay pot is lit, and this is believed to represent the one Atman (soul, self).[45][46]


Garba dancing is a Navaratri tradition in Gujarat.
In Gujarat and nearby Hindu communities such as in Malwa, the garbo significance is celebrated through performance arts on all nine days.[45][46] The most visible is group dances from villages to towns called Garba accompanied by live orchestra, seasonal raga or devotional songs. It is a folk dance, where people of different background and skills join and form concentric circles. The circles can grow or shrink, reaching sizes of 100s, sometimes 1000s of people, dancing and clapping in circular moves, in their traditional costumes, at the same time. The garba dance sometimes deploys dandiyas (sticks), coordinated movements and striking of sticks between the dancers, and teasing between the genders.[47] Post dancing, the group and the audience socializes and feasts together.[45][46] Regionally, the same thematic celebration of community songs, music and dances on Navaratri is called garbi or garabi.[46]

Goa

Some regions produce and sell special Navaratri miniature golu dolls, such as of Krishna above.
In the temples of Goa, on the first day of the Hindu month of Ashwin, in temples (and some households), a copper pitcher is installed surrounded by clay in which nine varieties of food grains are placed inside the sanctum sanctorum of Devi and Krishna temples. The nine nights are celebrated by presenting devotional songs, and through religious discourses. Artists arrive to perform folk musical instruments. Celebrations include placing the goddess image in a specially-decorated colourful silver swing, known as Makhar in Konkani language and for each of the nine nights, she is swung to the tune of temple music (called as ranavadya) and devotees singing kirtan and waving lamps. This is locally called Makharotsav.[48][49]

The last night of the Goa Navaratri festival is a major celebration and attracts larger participation. It is locally called the makhar arati..[50]

Karnataka

Navaratri decorations at Kudroli Hindu temple, Karnataka
In Karnataka, Navaratri is observed by lighting up Hindu temples, cultural sites, and many regal processions. It is locally called Dasara and it is the state festival (Nadahabba) of Karnataka. Of the many celebrations, the Mysuru Dasara is a major one and is popular for its festivities.[51]

The contemporary Dasara festivities at Mysore are credited to the efforts of King Raja Wodeyar I in 1610. On the ninth day of Dasara, called Mahanavami,[52] the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession of decorated elephants and horses. The day after Navratri, on the Vijayadashami day, the traditional Dasara procession is held on the streets of Mysore. An image of the Goddess Chamundeshwari is placed on a golden saddle (hauda) on the back of a decorated elephant and taken on a procession, accompanied by tableaux, dance groups, music bands, decorated elephants, horses and camels.[53]

Ayudha Puja is dedicated to Saraswati goddess, on the ninth day of Dasara, where military personnel upkeep their weapons and families upkeep their tools of livelihood, both offering a prayer to Saraswati as well as Parvati and Lakshmi.[15][54] Another Navaratri tradition in Karnataka has been decorating a part of one's home with art dolls called Gombe or Bombe, similar to Golu dolls of Tamil Nadu. An art-themed Gaarudi Gombe, featuring folk dances which incorporate these dolls, is also a part of the celebration.[55]

Kerala

A family preparing for Saraswati puja on Navaratri.
In Kerala and in some parts of Karnataka three days: Ashtami, Navami, and Vijaya Dashami of Sharada Navarathri are celebrated as Sarasvati Puja in which books are worshiped. The books are placed for Puja on the Ashtami day in own houses, traditional nursery schools, or in temples. On Vijaya Dashami day, the books are ceremoniously taken out for reading and writing after worshiping Sarasvati. Vijaya Dashami day is considered auspicious for initiating the children into writing and reading, which is called Vidyāraṃbhaṃ.[56]

The Vidyarambham day tradition starts with the baby or child sitting on the lap of an elderly person such as the grandfather, near images of Saraswati and Ganesha. The elder writes a letter and the child writes the same with his or her index finger. This Hindu tradition is so popular that Christian organizations have copied it and ritually observe it inside many churches.[57] However, Navratri traditions of Hindus is not the only tradition observed by Kerala Christians, many other Hindu ritual traditions are celebrated in Churches.[58]

Maharashtra

Traditionally dressed for Navaratri festival celebrations
The Navaratri celebrations vary across Maharashtra and the specific rites differ between regions even if they are called the same and dedicated to the same deity. The most common celebration begins on the first day of Navaratri with Ghatasthapana (sthapana of a ghat), which literally means "mounting of a jar". On this day, rural households mount a copper or brass jar, filled with water, upon a small heap of rice kept on a wooden stool (pat).[59] Additionally, with the jar, is typically placed other agriculture symbols such as turmeric root, leaves of mango tree, coconut and major staple grains (usually eight varieties). A lamp is lighted symbolizing knowledge and household prosperity, and kept alight through the nine nights of Navaratri.[60]

The family worships the pot for nine days by offering rituals and a garland of flowers, leaves, fruits, dry-fruits, etc. with a naivedya, and water is offered in order to get the seeds sprouted. Some families also celebrate Kali pujan on days 1 and 2, Laxmi pujan on days 3, 4, 5 and Saraswati puja on days 6, 7, 8, 9 along with Ghatasthapana. On the eighth day, a "Yajna" or "Hom" is performed in the name of Goddess Durga. On ninth day, the Ghat puja is performed and the Ghat is dismantled after taking off the sprouted leaves of the grains. In many families, a woman from Matang community is called and offered food and blessings are sought from her. She is considered as a form of the Goddess "Matangi".[citation needed]

The Goddess Lalita is worshipped on the fifth day of the festival.[61] On the ninth day or Khande Navami of the festival, men participate in worshipping all kinds of tools, weapons, vehicles and productive instruments.[62]


Girls dressed up for music and dance performance, Amman Navarathiri
Tamil Nadu
Navaratri has been a historic tradition within Tamil Nadu, with Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga goddesses the focus.[63] Like the rest of India, the festival has been an occasion for performance arts, particularly Hindu temple dances such as Bharatanatyam and Mohiniyattam. Major palaces, community centers, and historic temples have embedded dance halls. For example, the Padmanabhapuram Palace built about 1600 CE has had a large dance hall with intricately carved pillars, a structure entirely made of stone. This dance hall has traditionally been known as Navratri Mantapa.[64] The festivities begin with Vedic chants inaugurating the dances and other ceremonies. Other Tamil Hindu temples, such as those associated with Sri Vaishnavism, also celebrate the Navarathri festivities.[65]


A large sculpted dance hall inside Padmanabhapuram Palace near Kanyakumari is called Navarathri Mandapam. It features goddess Saraswati and large dance hall.
Another notable Tamil tradition is a celebration of the festival with Golu dolls (also spelled as Gollu). These include gods, goddesses, animals, birds and rural life all in a miniature design. People set up their own creative themes in their homes, called Kolu, friends and families invite each other to visit their homes to view Kolu displays, then exchange gifts and sweets.[66] This tradition is also found in other parts of South India such as Andhra Pradesh where it called Bommala Koluvu, and Karnataka where it is called Gombe Habba or Gombe totti.[63][67] Evidence of Gombe totti tradition as a Hindu celebration of the artisan arts goes back to at least the 14th-century Vijayanagara Empire.[68] In the evening of "Vijayadasami", anyone doll from the "Kolu" is symbolically put to sleep and the Kalasa is moved a bit towards North to mark the end of that year's Navaratri Kolu. The family offers a prayer of thanks, and wraps up the display.[citation needed]

In temples of Tamil Nadu, Navaratri is celebrated for Devi's dwelling in each temple. The temples are decorated, ceremonial lamps are lit, and Vedic chantings are performed. Popular Tamil Nadu temples celebrating Navaratri are Madurai Meenakshi Temple, Chennai Kapaleeswarar temple, Kulasekarapattinam Devi temple, Perambur Ellaiamman temple, Srirangam Ranganathan temple and 8th century Kumari Amman temple. Priests and visitors to some of these temples wear a special yellow colored 'promise of protection' thread on their wrists, called kappu (Tamil) or raksha bandhana (Sanskrit). It is believed to symbolize a vow to the goddess and protection from the goddess against evil.[69][70]

Telangana
See also: Kanya Puja

A lamp above a Bathukamma flower arrangement, a Telugu Navaratri tradition.
In Telangana, Navaratri is celebrated as in the rest of India and it ends with Dasara. During the Navaratri nights, a notable Telangana tradition involves Telugu Hindu women who produce Bathukamma for Navratri goddesses. It is an artistic flower decorations driven event, particularly using marigolds, which revere three different aspects Devi, called Tridevi. In 2016, 9.292 women simultaneously participated to create a 20 feet high flower arrangements, one of the world's largest festive flower arrangement.[71][72]

First three days, the goddess Durga (Parvati) is revered. The next three days, the Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped. Over the last three days, locals revere the goddess of wisdom, Saraswati. In order to have all-round success in life, believers seek the blessings of all three aspects of the divine femininity, hence the nine nights of worship.[citation needed]

Like elsewhere in India, Ayudha Puja is observed by Telangana Hindus where weapons are maintained, decorated and worshipped. Tradesmen and farmers similarly clean up, decorate and worship their own equipment of trade.[15]

Animal sacrifice
Animal sacrifice is a part of some Durga puja celebrations during the Navratri in eastern states of India. The goddess is offered sacrificial animal in this ritual in the belief that it stimulates her violent vengeance against the buffalo demon.[73] According to Christopher Fuller, the animal sacrifice practice is rare among Hindus during Navratri, or at other times, outside the Shaktism tradition found in the eastern Indian states of West Bengal, Odisha[74] and Assam. Further, even in these states, the festival season is one where significant animal sacrifices are observed.[73] In some Shakta Hindu communities, the slaying of buffalo demon and victory of Durga is observed with a symbolic sacrifice instead of animal sacrifice.[b][76][77]

The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places.[79][80] The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior.[81] The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.[82]

The tradition of animal sacrifice is being substituted with vegetarian offerings to the Goddess in temples and households around Banaras in Northern India.[83]

Outside India
The Hindu diaspora that migrated as indentured servants during colonial era to various plantations and mines around the world, as well as those who migrated on their own, continued to mark their Navaratri traditions. Tamil Hindus in Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, for example, built Hindu temples in southeast Asia in the 19th century, and Navratri has been one of their major traditional festivals.[84] In Trinidad and United Kingdom, Navratri and Diwali have been one of the most visible celebrations of the local Hindu communities from about mid 20th-century.[85][86]

Other Religions
Navaratri and goddess worship is mentioned in the historic Sikhism literature, particularly in the Dasam Granth traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. According to Louis Fenech, the Sikhs have historically mirrored the reverence for Devi Shakthi and the worship of weapons in a manner similar to those by Shakta Hindus.[87][88] The second Guru of Sikhism, Guru Angad was an ardent devotee of goddess Durga.[89]

The Jains have observed the social and cultural celebrations of Navaratri with Hindus, such as the folk dances. The stavan poetry of Jainism, states M. Whitney Kelting, "draw much of their imagery from the garba poems" of Hinduism

هريثيك روشان

هريثيك روشان يُنطق ريتيك روشان، (بالهندية: ऋतिक रोशन) (ولد في 10 يناير 1974 في مومباي) هو ممثل أفلام بوليودي وراقص ومنتج وشخصية تلفزيونية ورجل أعمال هندي شهير. يعد واحدًا من أغنى وأغلى الممثلين أجرا في الهند.

ولد هريثيك روشان لأسرة هندوسية ينحدر سائر أفرادها من عائلة فنية، فهو ابن الفنان راكيش روشان صاحب إحدى أكبر شركات الإنتاج السينيمائي بشراكة مع الدته بينكي روشان.

بدأ روشان مشواره الفني منذ صغره من خلال مشاركة والده بشكل متكرر في العديد من الأفلام الهندية إبان الثمانينيات، عمل بعدها كمساعد مخرج في أربعة من أفلام والده. قبل أن يصنع لنفسه طريقا نحو النجومية من خلال أول دور رائد له في شباك التذاكر الهندي بواسطة الفيلم الرومنسي كاهو نا بيار هاي عام 2000، وهو الفيلم الذي خول له الحصول على العديد من الجوائز الوطنية مما عبد طريقه نحو الشهرة، توالت انجازاته من خلال الفيلم فيزا (مسلسل) والذي حقق به نجاحًا نقديا قبل أن يعزز مكانته عالميا من خلال الفيلم الميلودرامي الناجح نقديا وتجاريا حيانا السعادة وأحيانا الحزن في عام 2001 رفقة عدد من عمالقة السينما الهندية أمثال أميتاب باتشان، جايا باتشان، شاه روخ خان، كاجول، كارينا كابور وراني مخرجي بالاضافة للمخرج والمنتج كاران جوهر.

وبالرغم من فشل عدد من أفلامه. استطاع روشان العودة من جديد أكثر قوة بواسطة فيلم الخيال العلمي كوي... ميل غايا عام 2003، والذي فاز فيه روشان بجائزتي فيلمفير، مما شكل نقطة تحول في حياته المهنية؛ أعقبها تصويره لأجزاء السلسة كريش عام 2006 وكريش 3 عام 2013.

حاز روشان على إشادة النقاد برفقة النجمة آيشواريا راي لتجسيده عدة أدوار مركبة أبرزها دور اللص في الجزء الثاني من فيلم الإثارة دووم 2 عام 2006، والفيلم التاريخي الرومانسي جودا أكبر عن إمبراطور المغول جلال الدين أكبر عام 2008 ثم تجسيده لشخصية مصاب بالشلل الرباعي في دراما غوزاريش عام 2010

لعب روشان دور الريادة في دراما زنداقي نا ملغي دبارة عام 2011، الفيلم الانتقامي طريق النار عام 2012، والكوميديا المثيرة بانغ بانغ عام 2014، التي صنفت أفضل إصدار له،

في عام 2011 ظهر روشان لأول مرة على شاشة التلفزيون في البرنامج الاستعراضي Just Dance، قبل أن يصبح أحد حكام لجنة التحكيم البرنامج، ليصبح بذلك النجم الأعلى أجرًا على التلفزيون الهندي.

فاز روشان خلال مشواره المستمر بالعديد من الجوائز ما يقارب 164 جائزة و600 ترشيحا، أبرزها ستة جوائز فيلم فير، سبع جوائز الشاشة الهندية، وتسعة جوائز الأكاديمية الدولية للفيلم الهندي، ستة جوائز زي سيني، ستة جوائز أفلام بوليوود وغيرها.

شارك روشان في عدد من الملتقيات الخيرية، عمل روشان مع عدد من العلامات التجارية والمنتجات قبل أن يطلق خط ملابس خاص به.

ابتداءً من عام 2012، وبناءً على دخله وشعبيته ظهر روشان في قائمة فوربس لأقوى المشاهير 100 التابعة لمجلة فوربس الهند.

حياته الشخصية
ولد روشان بعيب خلقي في إبهام يده اليمنى بحيث يتوفر على ابهامين، روبالرغم من نجوميته إلا أنه رفض اجراء عملية جراحية له.
تزوج هريثيك روشان في 20 ديسمبر 2000 من مصممة الديكور سوزان خان، ابنة الممثل (سانجاي خان) وأخت الممثل زايد خان ورزقى بولدين هما هريدهان المولود في 28 مارس 2006 وهريحان المولود في 1 ماي 2008. قبل أن ينفصلا سنة 2014 بعد أكثر من 14 سنة من الزواج
في سنة 2016، صنف الممثل هريثيك روشان في المركز الثالث للقب أكثر الرجال وسامة في العالم ضمن تصويت أجراه موقع "worldstopmost"، متفوقا على الممثل جوني الديب الذي حصد المركز الرابع، في سنة 2018 وضمن تصويت أجراه نفس الموقع، حاز هريثيك روشان على المركز الأول للقب أوسم رجل في العالم

Hrithik Roshan

Hrithik Roshan (English: /ˈrɪtɪk ˈrɒʃən/, born 10 January 1974) is an Indian actor who appears in Bollywood films. He has portrayed a variety of characters and is known for his dancing skills. One of the highest-paid actors in India, he has won many awards, including six Filmfares, four for Best Actor and one each for Best Debut and Best Actor (Critics). Starting in 2012, he appeared in Forbes India's Celebrity 100 based on his income and popularity.

Roshan has frequently collaborated with his father. He made brief appearances as a child actor in several films in the 1980s and later worked as an assistant director on four of his father's films. His first leading role was in the box-office success Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2000), for which he received several awards. Performances in the 2000 terrorism drama Fiza and the 2001 ensemble melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... consolidated his reputation but were followed by several poorly received films.

The 2003 science fiction film Koi... Mil Gaya, for which Roshan won two Filmfare Awards, was a turning point in his career; he also appeared in its sequels: Krrish (2006) and Krrish 3 (2013). He earned praise for his portrayal of a thief in the 2006 adventure film Dhoom 2, Mughal emperor Akbar in the 2008 historical romance Jodhaa Akbar and a quadriplegic in the 2010 drama Guzaarish. He played the lead in the 2011 drama Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara, the 2012 revenge film Agneepath, the 2014 action comedy Bang Bang!, which ranks as his highest-grossing release, and the 2019 biopic Super 30.

Roshan has also performed on stage and debuted on television with Just Dance (2011). As a judge on the latter, he became the highest-paid film star on Indian television. He is involved with a number of humanitarian causes, endorses several brands and products and has launched his own clothing line. Roshan was married for fourteen years to Sussanne Khan, with whom he has two children
Early life and background
Roshan was born on 10 January 1974 in Bombay to a Punjabi family prominent in Bollywood.[1][2] His father, film director Rakesh Roshan, is the son of music director Roshanlal Nagrath; his mother, Pinky, is the daughter of producer and director J. Om Prakash. His uncle, Rajesh, is a music composer.[2] Roshan has an older sister, Sunaina, and was educated at the Bombay Scottish School.[3] Roshan is of part Bengali ancestry from his paternal grandmother's side.[4] Although Roshan practices Hinduism,[5] he says that "I'm not religious. I don't visit temples. But I hope there is a superpower.
Roshan felt isolated as a child; he was born with an extra thumb fused to the one on his right hand, which led some of his peers to avoid him.[8] He has stammered since the age of six; this caused him problems at school, and he feigned injury and illness to avoid oral tests.[9] He was helped by daily speech therapy.[9][10]

Roshan's grandfather, Prakash first brought him on-screen at the age of six in the film Aasha (1980); he danced in a song enacted by Jeetendra, for which Prakash paid him ₹100.[11][12] Roshan made uncredited appearances in various family film projects, including his father's production Aap Ke Deewane (1980). In Prakash's Aas Paas (1981), he appeared in the song "Shehar Main Charcha Hai".[13] The actor's only speaking role during this period came when he was 12; he was seen as Govinda, the title character's adopted son, in Prakash's Bhagwaan Dada (1986).[14][15] Roshan decided that he wanted to be a full-time actor, but his father insisted that he focus on his studies.[15] In his early 20s, he was diagnosed with scoliosis that would not allow him to dance or perform stunts. Initially devastated,[16][17] he eventually decided to become an actor anyway. Around a year after the diagnosis, he took a chance by jogging on a beach when he was caught in a downpour. There was no pain, and becoming more confident, he was able to increase his pace with no adverse effects. Roshan sees this day as "the turning point of [his] life."[16]

Roshan attended Sydenham College, where he took part in dance and music festivals while studying, graduating in commerce.[2] Roshan assisted his father on four films—Khudgarz (1987), King Uncle (1993), Karan Arjun (1995) and Koyla (1997)—while also sweeping the floor and making tea for the crew.[2][18] After pack-up, Roshan would enact Shah Rukh Khan's scenes from Koyla and film himself to make a judgement about his performance as an actor.[19] While he assisted his father, he studied acting under Kishore Namit Kapoor.[20][21]

Film career
Main article: Hrithik Roshan filmography
2000–2003: Debut, success and setback
Roshan was originally scheduled to make his screen debut as a lead actor opposite Preity Zinta in the cancelled film Shekhar Kapur's Tara Rum Pum Pum.[22] Instead, he starred in his father's romantic drama Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2000) opposite another debutante, Ameesha Patel. Roshan played dual roles: Rohit, an aspiring singer brutally killed after witnessing a murder, and Raj, an NRI who falls in love with Patel's character.[23] To prepare, he trained with the actor Salman Khan to bulk up physically,[24] worked to improve his diction and took lessons in acting, singing, dancing, fencing and riding.[25] With global revenues of ₹620 million (US$9.0 million),[26] Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai became the highest-grossing Indian film of 2000.[27] His performance was acclaimed by critics;[19][28] Suggu Kanchana on Rediff.com wrote, "[Roshan] is good. The ease and style with which he dances, emotes, fights, makes one forget this is his debut film ... He seems to be the most promising among the recent lot of star sons we have been subjected to."[23] For the role, Roshan received Best Male Debut and Best Actor Awards at the annual Filmfare Awards, IIFA Awards, and Zee Cine Awards.[29] He became the first actor to win both Filmfare Best Debut and Best Actor awards the same year.[30] The film established Roshan as a prominent actor in Bollywood.[31] The actor found life hard after his overnight success, particularly the demands on his time.[32]

In his second release, Khalid Mohammed's crime drama Fiza, Roshan played Amaan, an innocent Muslim boy who becomes a terrorist after the 1992–93 Bombay riots.[32] Roshan appeared in the film to expand his horizons as an actor.[33] Co-starring Karisma Kapoor and Jaya Bachchan, Fiza was moderately successful at the box office,[34] and Roshan's performance earned him a second nomination for Best Actor at the Filmfare ceremony.[35] Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama praised him as the production's prime asset, commending his "body language, his diction, his expressions, [and] his overall persona."[36] Roshan next appeared in Vidhu Vinod Chopra's action drama Mission Kashmir (2000) alongside Sanjay Dutt, Preity Zinta, and Jackie Shroff. Set in the valley of Kashmir during the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, the film addressed the topics of terrorism and crime, and was a financial success.[27] Roshan was drawn to his complex role of a young man traumatised by the discovery that his adoptive father had been responsible for the death of his entire birth family.[33] In Adarsh's opinion, Roshan "brightens up the screen with his magnetic presence. His body language, coupled with his expressions, is sure to win him plaudits.
In 2001, Roshan appeared in two films, the first of which was Subhash Ghai's Yaadein, a romantic drama which paired him with Kareena Kapoor and reunited him with Shroff. Although highly anticipated, Yaadein was reviled by critics; in The Hindu, Ziya Us Salam criticised the director for relying on Roshan's commercial appeal.[39][40] Roshan next had a supporting role in Karan Johar's ensemble melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... alongside Amitabh Bachchan, Jaya Bachchan, Shah Rukh Khan, Kajol and Kareena Kapoor. He was cast as Rohan Raichand—the younger son of Bachchan's character who plots to reunite him with his adopted son (played by Khan)—after Johar had watched a rough cut of Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai.[41] Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... finished as India's second highest-grossing film of the year,[42] and among the most successful Bollywood films in the overseas market, earning over ₹1 billion (US$14 million) worldwide.[43] Writing for Rediff.com, Anjum N described Roshan as "the surprise scene-stealer", praising him for holding his own against the established actors.[44] Roshan received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance.[35]

In 2002 Vikram Bhatt's romance Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage reunited him with Ameesha Patel but failed at the box office, as did Arjun Sablok's romance Na Tum Jaano Na Hum (2002).[45] Roshan's final role that year was in a Yash Raj Films production, the high-profile Mujhse Dosti Karoge! co-starring Rani Mukerji and Kareena Kapoor. The romantic drama was heavily promoted before its release and made money internationally, though not in India.[46][47] In another commercial failure, Sooraj R. Barjatya's Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon, Roshan was cast alongside Kareena Kapoor for the fourth time, and Abhishek Bachchan. The press labeled Roshan a "one-trick pony" and suggested that the failure of these films would end his career.[39][48]

2003–2008: Revival and awards success
Roshan's career began to revive with a starring role in Koi... Mil Gaya (2003).[19][49] The film, directed and produced by his father, centers on his character Rohit Mehra, a developmentally disabled young man, who comes in contact with an extraterrestrial being—a role that required him to lose nearly 8 kilograms (18 lb). Roshan recalls the experience of starring in the film fondly: "I could live my childhood [again]. I could eat as many chocolates as I wanted. I became a baby and everybody was so caring towards me."[50] In the book Film Sequels, Carolyn Jess-Cooke drew similarities between the character and Forrest Gump, portrayed by Tom Hanks in the titular film, but this idea was dismissed by Roshan.[50][51] Film critics were polarised on their view of the film—some of them negatively compared its storyline to the 1982 Hollywood release E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial—but were unanimous in their praise for Roshan.[16][52] In a 2010 retrospective of the Top 80 Iconic Performances of Bollywood, Filmfare noted "how flesh and blood Hrithik's act is. Simply because he believes he is the part. Watch him laugh, cry or bond with his remote controlled alien friend and note his nuanced turn."[53] A Rediff.com critic agreed that Roshan was "the turbojet that propels the film to the realm of the extraordinary."[54] Koi... Mil Gaya was the most popular Bollywood film of the year, earning ₹800 million (US$12 million), and Roshan won both Filmfare Awards for Best Actor and Best Actor (Critics)