الخميس، 26 سبتمبر 2019

Jacques Chirac

Jacques Chirac [ ʒɑk ʃiʁak]a Écouter, né le 29 novembre 1932 à Paris et mort le 26 septembre 2019 dans la même ville, est un haut fonctionnaire et homme d'État français. Il est président de la République française du 17 mai 1995 au 16 mai 2007.

Député de la Corrèze et secrétaire d'État à partir de 1967, il est nommé Premier ministre par Valéry Giscard d'Estaing en 1974, notamment à la suite de l’appel des 43. Deux ans plus tard, entretenant de mauvaises relations avec celui-ci, il démissionne de Matignon et lance le Rassemblement pour la République (RPR). Il devient maire de Paris en 1977 et se présente à l’élection présidentielle de 1981, où il participe à l’échec du président sortant.

Il exerce à nouveau la fonction de Premier ministre de 1986 à 1988, sous la présidence de François Mitterrand : il est ainsi le premier chef du gouvernement d'une cohabitation sous la Ve République et, par la même occasion, la seule personnalité politique sous ce même régime ayant assumé par deux fois la charge de Premier ministre. Il est battu au second tour de l’élection présidentielle de 1988 face au président sortant, puis prend la tête de l’opposition, bien que concurrencé par la suite par Édouard Balladur.

À l’issue de l’élection présidentielle de 1995, il est élu chef de l’État avec 52,6 % au second tour, face au socialiste Lionel Jospin. Le début de son septennat est marqué par une réforme des retraites et de la Sécurité sociale qui est massivement contestée et en partie abandonnée, et par la reconnaissance de la responsabilité de l'État français dans la déportation des Juifs au cours de l'Occupation. À la suite de la dissolution manquée de l'Assemblée nationale en 1997, il est contraint à une cohabitation avec Jospin. Il doit alors faire face à des affaires judiciaires dans lesquelles il est directement mis en cause.

Lors de l'élection présidentielle de 2002, il est réélu au second tour avec 82,2 % des voix, bénéficiant d'un « front républicain » face au candidat du Front national, Jean-Marie Le Pen. Pendant son second mandat, après avoir lancé l'Union pour un mouvement populaire (UMP), il prend la tête de l'opposition internationale à la guerre d'Irak lancée par George W. Bush, et s'implique pour le « oui » dans le référendum de 2005 sur la Constitution européenne, qui se solde par la victoire du « non ». À la fin de sa présidence, affaibli par un permier AVC en septembre 2005, il renonce à briguer un troisième mandat.

Retiré de la vie politique, il siège jusqu’en 2011 au Conseil constitutionnel, dont il est membre de droit en tant qu'ancien président de la République. Mis en cause dans de nombreuses affaires judiciaires durant sa carrière, il a bénéficié de son immunité présidentielle, mais reste poursuivi dans l'affaire des emplois fictifs de la mairie de Paris, dans le cadre de laquelle il est condamné à deux ans d’emprisonnement avec sursis en 2011.

Durant son parcours politique, il se montre changeant au niveau idéologique. Engagé à gauche dans sa jeunesse, il est généralement considéré comme gaulliste et classé à droite de l'échiquier politique, bien que des spécialistes le qualifient de radical-socialiste.
Le patronyme Chirac désigne une personne originaire de Chirac, nom de plusieurs localités : la commune de Chirac-Bellevue en Corrèze, l'ancienne commune de Chirac en Lozère (actuelle Bourgs sur Colagne), la commune de Chirac en Charente, ou un hameau de la commune de Chanteuges en Haute-Loire. Le toponyme lui-même est typiquement occitan (il est prononcé [ t͡ʃi.ˈrak]) et représente l'évolution régulière du latin Cariacum, composé de l'anthroponyme gallo-romain Carius et et du suffixe -iacum, désignant la propriété, soit ensemble le « domaine de Carius »1.

Jacques Chirac parle ainsi de son patronyme, qui « a pour origine la langue d'oc, celle des troubadours, donc celle de la poésie ».

Famille
Né à la clinique de la rue Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire dans le 5e arrondissement de Paris, Jacques René Chirac est le fils « par accidentb » de Marie Louise Valette (1902-1973) et d'Abel François Marie Chirac (1898-1968), médaillé militaire croix de guerre de 14-18, décoré de la Légion d'honneur, employé de banque puis administrateur d'une filiale de la société aéronautique SNCAN. Tous deux sont issus de familles corréziennes laïques et républicaines2.

Ses deux grands-pères sont des hussards noirs de la République, des instituteurs devenus directeurs d'école : à Brive-la-Gaillarde pour son grand-père paternel, Louis Chirac, également vénérable de la loge de la Fidélité du Grand Orient3, et à Sainte-Féréole (Corrèze) pour son aïeul maternel.

Jeunesse et formation
1932-1951 : jeunesse
Le jeune Jacques est élevé en enfant unique et couvé par sa mère car sa sœur aînée, Jacqueline, est morte d'une broncho-pneumonie foudroyante, en 1924, à l'âge de deux ans4.

Il commence ses études à l'école communale de Sainte-Féréole, en Corrèze, où il est scolarisé de 1940 à 1943 ; la famille s'est alors réfugiée face à l'avancée allemande5, avant de rejoindre l'ingénieur aéronautique Henry Potez sur le domaine du Rayol-Canadel-sur-Mer6 puis de les poursuivre en région parisienne (où son père, après avoir été employé de banque, est nommé directeur à la BNCI en 19367), tout d'abord au lycée Hoche de Versailles pendant un an, puis au cours Hattemer8, au lycée Carnot et enfin au lycée Louis-le-Grand, où il obtient le baccalauréat. Les études n'empêchent pas le jeune Jacques de lire de la littérature de son âge, en particulier le magazine Coq hardi dont il rejoint les amateurs en se faisant « totémiser », à la manière des scouts et comme c'était la pratique dans cette édition, sous le totem de « Bison égocentrique » dans les années 19409.

Après son baccalauréat, obtenu en 1950 en section « mathématiques élémentaires » avec mention « assez bien », il fait une campagne de trois mois comme matelot sur un navire charbonnier, le Capitaine Saint-Martin, contre l'avis de son père et signe l’appel de Stockholm sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires10. De retour en France, il fait une année en « hypotaupe » (mathématiques supérieures, première année de classe préparatoire scientifique) au lycée Louis-le-Grand.

1951-1956 : études à Sciences Po et vie familiale
Envisageant une carrière administrative, il intègre, en septembre 1951, l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris11. Durant cette période, brièvement, il milite dans la mouvance du Parti communiste avec notamment le futur éditeur Christian Bourgois. Il vend L'Humanité rue de Vaugirard, et participe au moins à une réunion de cellule communiste, comme il l'a raconté12. Ayant signé l'année précédente l'appel de Stockholm, d'inspiration communiste10, il se voit interrogé lorsqu'il demande son premier visa pour les États-Unis ; il est ainsi auditor (étudiant auditeur libre) de la Summer school de Harvard en 1952, et prend dans la foulée une année sabbatique pour parcourir les États-Unis. Il s'y fiance avec une jeune fille de Caroline du Sud13 — Florence Herlihy14 mais les jeunes gens doivent rompre sous la pression de leurs familles respectives15.

De retour en France, ses fiançailles avec Bernadette Chodron de Courcel (née en mai 1933), rencontrée à Sciences Po, sont célébrées dans l'appartement des Chodron de Courcel, boulevard Raspail, le 17 octobre 1953. En 1954, il finit son cursus à l'IEP Paris (section Service Public) en soutenant un mémoire de géographie économique intitulé Le Développement du port de La Nouvelle-Orléans, dirigé par le professeur Jean Chardonnet. Il sort ainsi troisième sur les 139 de sa promotion, avec la mention « bien »16. À l'automne de la même année, il est reçu à l'École nationale d'administration[réf. souhaitée].

Le 16 mars 1956, il épouse Bernadette Chodron de Courcel, malgré les réticences de la famille de celle-ci vis-à-vis d'un jeune homme issu d'un milieu différent. Les Chodron de Courcel refusent un mariage solennel dans la basilique Sainte-Clotilde, habituée des familles de la haute société du faubourg Saint-Germain. La cérémonie a donc lieu dans la chapelle de Jésus-Enfant (no 29 rue Las-Cases), annexe de l'église, réservée alors au catéchisme et aux cérémonies plus intimes, Jacques Chirac étant en uniforme de sous-lieutenant de cavalerie17. Ils ont deux filles : Laurence (1958-2016), médecin, et Claude, née en 1962, conseillère en communication. Les médias rapportent de nombreux cas d’adultère de la part de Jacques Chirac18,19,20, notamment avec Jacqueline Chabridon et Claudia Cardinale21.

1956-1957 : service militaire et guerre d'Algérie
Juste après son mariage, de 1956 à 1957, il effectue son service militaire, et il est classé huitième à l'École de la Cavalerie de Saumur22. On lui refuse cependant le grade d'officier (il est affecté tout d'abord comme soldat de deuxième classe dans un régiment en Bretagne) en raison de son passé communisant et il faut l'intervention des relations de la famille Chodron de Courcel (le général Kœnig) pour l'obtenir. Il en sort donc finalement comme sous-lieutenant de cavalerie.

En tant qu'élève de l'ENA, il aurait pu éviter de faire la guerre d'Algérie (pendant 18 mois), mais il se porte volontaire et il est affecté, à partir du 1er avril 1956, au 11e puis 6e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique23, en poste à Souk-el-Arba dans le département de Tlemcen24. Au cours de son service, il est blessé au visage, puis promu lieutenant au début de l'année 1957. Il est libéré de son service le 3 juin 1957. Partisan de l'Algérie française, Jacques Chirac explique qu'il n'est devenu gaulliste qu'en 1958, et qu'en 1947[réf. nécessaire], il a pris sa carte du Rassemblement du peuple français « sans savoir ce [qu'il] faisait ».

1957-1965 : ENA et carrière de haut fonctionnaire
Grâce à son mariage et à son ambition, il change complètement de milieu social. De retour de son service militaire, il reprend ses études à l'ENA dans la promotion Vauban, dont il sort dixième en 1959. Celle-ci étant détachée en Algérie par Charles de Gaulle entre le 17 avril 1959 et avril 1960, il est affecté en tant que « renfort administratif » auprès du directeur général de l'Agriculture en Algérie, Jacques Pélissier.

À son retour en France métropolitaine, Jacques Chirac est nommé auditeur à la Cour des comptes et devient maître de conférences à l'IEP de Paris. En juin 1962, il devient chargé de mission (pour la « construction, les travaux publics, et les transports ») auprès du Secrétariat général du gouvernement, puis au cabinet du Premier ministre, Georges Pompidou, dont il devient rapidement un fidèle partisan et collaborateur. Un an plus tard, il retourne à la Cour des comptes en tant que conseiller référendaire, mais ne tarde pas à s'engager en politique.

Parcours politique
Avant l'Élysée
Débuts
En 1965, il est élu conseiller municipal de Sainte-Féréole, en Corrèze, berceau des grands-parents maternels de sa mère25.

Un an plus tard, lors des élections législatives de 1967, Georges Pompidou l'envoie se présenter dans la circonscription d'Ussel (Corrèze), réputée être un bastion de gauche. Il est alors le fer de lance de l'opération dite des « Jeunes loups », à savoir l'alignement par le Premier ministre et les gaullistes de jeunes candidats prometteurs pour remporter des bastions traditionnels de la gauche dans le centre et l'ouest de la France26. Bénéficiant du soutien de Marcel Dassault, qui est un ami de son père et qui finance pour lui un hebdomadaire UDR ayant son siège à Limoges, L'Essor du Limousin27, il l’emporte de justesse au second tour, face à Georges Émon, candidat du Parti communiste français28. Cette victoire est obtenue à l'arraché sur une gauche divisée : en effet, le candidat envoyé par la FGDS pour remplacer Marcel Audy, sénateur et maire et conseiller général de Meymac, un temps pressenti mais convaincu par Jacques Chirac de ne pas se présenter, n'est autre que le propre frère de François Mitterrand, Robert, lequel fait un score calamiteux ; Jacques Chirac bénéficie de la neutralité bienveillante de la gloire locale, Henri Queuille, et de l'appui de l'inamovible maire d'Égletons, Charles Spinasse, ancien ministre socialiste de Léon Blum exclu de la SFIO pour faits de collaborationc. Charles Spinasse affirme à cette occasion que Jacques Chirac est un type très « Front populaire »
Le 8 mai 1967, Jacques Chirac — surnommé « mon bulldozer » par Georges Pompidou — est nommé secrétaire d'État à l'Emploi auprès du ministre des Affaires sociales Jean-Marcel Jeanneney, dans le troisième gouvernement Pompidou, entamant une longue carrière ministérielle qui continue dans tous les gouvernements successifs, dirigés par Maurice Couve de Murville, Jacques Chaban-Delmas et Pierre Messmer, jusqu'en 1974. Plus jeune membre du gouvernement en 1967, l'une de ses premières réalisations est la création de l'Agence nationale pour l'emploi. Durant mai 68, il joue un rôle capital lors des Accords de Grenelle et devient l'archétype du jeune énarque brillant, parodié dans un album d'Astérix en 1976.

Après mai 68, il est secrétaire d'État à l'Économie et aux Finances, d'abord sous l'autorité du gaulliste François-Xavier Ortoli dans le gouvernement Maurice Couve de Murville, puis de celle du libéral Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, après l'élection à la présidence de la République de Georges Pompidou et la formation du premier gouvernement Chaban-Delmas, en juin 1969. Les deux hommes se méfient l'un de l'autre, comme en témoigne le fait que Jacques Chirac n'est pas mis dans la confidence de la dévaluation du franc de 11,1 % en 1969, mais finissent par travailler en bonne intelligence. À ce poste, il patronne notamment la « procédure d'agrément », législation d'exception dont bénéficient les groupes industriels jugés les plus méritants, par négociation à l'amiable directe de l'impôt sur les bénéfices. Ses adversaires l'accusent d'en avoir surtout fait profiter les groupes Dassault ou Bouygues, deux entreprises bien implantées en Corrèze, département où il a renforcé son assise locale en se faisant élire conseiller général pour le canton de Meymac le 27 février 1968 (réélu en 1970, 1976 et 1982) puis président du conseil général en 1970 (réélu en 1973 et 1976, il abandonne ce poste en mars 1979 après être devenu maire de Paris). De plus, le couple Chirac achète le château de Bity, sur le territoire de la commune de Sarran dans le département, le 3 mars 1969, et le restaure après classement comme monument historique par arrêté du 3 avril 196930,d. L'épouse de Jacques Chirac, Bernadette, complète sa présence en Corrèze en étant élue conseillère municipale de Sarran en 1971 (et deuxième adjointe au maire à partir de 1977) ainsi que conseillère générale pour le canton de Corrèze en 1979.

De plus en plus proche de Georges Pompidou, il est choisi en juillet 1969 par le couple présidentiel pour devenir le premier directeur général de la Fondation Claude-Pompidou. Il commence également, à cette époque, à se lier avec deux collaborateurs du président de la République qui deviennent ses deux principaux conseillers durant les années 1970, Pierre Juillet et Marie-France Garaud.

Le 7 janvier 1971, Jacques Chirac est nommé directement par l'Élysée, et sans l'aval du chef de gouvernement Jacques Chaban-Delmas, ministre délégué auprès du Premier ministre chargé des relations avec le Parlement. Il obtient finalement son premier poste gouvernemental d'importance le 5 juillet 1972, en étant nommé ministre de l'Agriculture et du Développement rural, dans le gouvernement Messmer. Il s'y fait remarquer en obtenant massivement les voix des agriculteurs, base électorale importante qu'il conservera tout au long de sa carrière politique. Dans la même logique, comme bon nombre de personnalités politiques, il assure chaque année, de 1972 à 2011 (sauf en 1979, à la suite de son accident de voiture), une sortie médiatisée et remarquée au salon de l'agriculture31,32. Il devient notamment l'un des instigateurs de la première politique d'aide à l'agriculture de montagne33, en lançant en 1973 l'indemnité spéciale de montagne (ISM)34. En novembre 1973, soutenu par le président, il revient sur des décisions de Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, alors en voyage, en annonçant le retrait du projet de loi de finance d'une nouvelle taxe sur la vente des fruits et légumes qui, dans un contexte de hausse des prix, s'était attirée la colère des détaillants35. Une fois de retour, le ministre des Finances ne peut qu'avaliser les promesses faites par son homologue de l'Agriculture.

Le 27 février 1974, probablement à la suite de l'affaire des écoutes du Canard enchaîné, il « échange », lors d'un changement de gouvernement, son poste avec celui de Raymond Marcellin, jusque-là ministre de l'Intérieur. La mort de Georges Pompidou, le 2 avril suivant, l'affecte fortement ; il apparaît ému aux larmes lors de la messe des funérailles du président en la cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris. Il milite alors pour une candidature à la Présidence de la République rassemblant l'ensemble de la majorité, face à l'union de la gauche derrière François Mitterrand, et est hostile à Jacques Chaban-Delmas qu'il n'estime pas capable d'affronter la gauche. Il choisit de soutenir tout d'abord le Premier ministre sortant, Pierre Messmer, un temps candidat, puis Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Il rallie en la faveur de ce dernier, avec son « appel des 43 », 39 parlementaires et 4 ministres gaullistes et contribue ainsi à la victoire du ministre des Finances à l'élection présidentielle. Il bénéficie aussi d'une bonne connaissance du terrain et des élus locaux, acquise en moins de deux ans au ministère de l'Agriculture et surtout de par sa position au sein d'un ministère « stratégique » dans lequel il a la haute main sur les préfets, avec les Renseignements généraux, entre autres.

1974-1976 : Premier ministre de Valéry Giscard d'Estaing
Le 27 mai 1974, en raison de son rôle décisif dans son élection, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing nomme Jacques Chirac Premier ministre. Il expose le 5 juin son discours de politique générale devant l'Assemblée nationale qui lui accorde le lendemain sa confiance par 297 voix contre 181. Il conserve l'appui de l'Union pour la défense de la République (qui ne compte que cinq ministres sur quinze, alors qu'ils étaient dix sur seize dans le précédent gouvernement), dont il devient le secrétaire général, en dépit de l'opposition des barons du gaullisme, sans même en avoir été membre précédemment, par 57 voix contre 27 au député-maire de Cambrai, Jacques Legendre, le 14 décembre. Il ne fait toutefois pas l'unanimité au sein du camp gaulliste. Ainsi, le ministre sortant des Relations avec le Parlement, Robert Boulin, qualifie son arrivée à la tête du parti de « hold-up » et rend sa carte de militant tandis que le député-maire de Brive-la-Gaillarde Jean Charbonnel avait déjà saisi, dès le 25 juin 1974, le tribunal administratif pour « violations graves, répétées, délibérées des statuts de l'UDR ». Jacques Chaban-Delmas, quant à lui, estime que : « M. Chirac n'a découvert le gaullisme qu'en comptant les sièges de l'Assemblée ».

Jacques Chirac prend toutefois rapidement en mains l'UDR, notamment les fédérations du parti, et il est réélu à la tête du parti avec 92,56 % des voix des membres du conseil national[Quand ?]. La journaliste Michèle Cotta mentionne « un enthousiasme inouï manifesté dans la salle ultra-moderne du palais des Congrès. Quel contraste par rapport à sa désignation houleuse en décembre dernier »36.

À Matignon, il instaure un style détendu et studieux, travaillant souvent en bras de chemise et les pieds sur la table, tout en entamant un bras de fer avec le président. Tous deux désirent gouverner le pays et possèdent un caractère très différent : leur rivalité est la même depuis leurs tensions au ministère des Finances. De plus, Jacques Chirac se voit imposer par le président un grand nombre de ministres qu'il n'apprécie pas. C'est notamment le cas de Michel Poniatowski qui lui succède à l'Intérieur et obtient en plus le titre de ministre d'État (ce qui en fait le no 2 du gouvernement derrière Chirac) et Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, tous deux fermement antigaullistes. Jacques Chirac se débarrasse rapidement du cofondateur de L'Express sur la question des essais nucléaires. « JJSS » y est opposé et le fait savoir, ce qui le pousse à la démission dès le 9 juin 1974. Pour le remplacer, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing impose à Jacques Chirac le second cofondateur de L'Express en la personne de Françoise Giroud, qui devient secrétaire d'État auprès du Premier ministre chargée de la Condition féminine le 16 juillet.

D'un autre côté, les réformes entreprises par Valéry Giscard d'Estaing surprennent puis agacent les gaullistes. Si Jacques Chirac s'investit personnellement dans la défense des plus symboliques d'entre elles, telles la majorité à 18 ans, la loi sur l'avortement, l'extension de la couverture de sécurité sociale ou la réforme de l'audiovisuel (avec l'éclatement de l'ORTF en sept entités autonomes, comprenant les trois chaines et Radio France, tout en conservant le monopole d'État), celles-ci, ainsi que certaines actions du président telles la « poignée de main » à des détenus en prison, rendent sceptiques l'UDR et vont, selon eux, à l'encontre des idéaux de l'électorat de droite. Beaucoup de « barons du gaullisme » lui reprochent alors d'être trop proche de l'Élysée, le contraignant à la démission du secrétariat général de l'UDR le 15 juin 1975 au profit d'un de ses proches, André Bord puis, à partir de 1976, Yves Guéna. Espérant être reconnu par le président de la République comme chef de la majorité, l'emploi par l'Élysée du terme de « majorité présidentielle » fait que les relations se tendent entre les deux têtes de l'exécutif. Les deux conseillers personnels de Jacques Chirac, Pierre Juillet et Marie-France Garaud, le poussent même à la rupture avec Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.

Gestion de la crise économique
À ces difficultés d'ordre politique s'ajoute une mauvaise situation économique et sociale. Il est en effet le premier chef de gouvernement à être réellement confronté aux effets du premier choc pétrolier de 1973 : la France connaît alors sa première récession économique (le PIB se rétracte de 1,6 % au quatrième trimestre 1974 et de 1,5 % en 1975) depuis 1945, ainsi qu'une forte inflation (celle-ci croît de 13,8 % en 1974, soit la plus forte hausse depuis 195837), tandis que le nombre de demandeurs d'emploi passe de 200 000 à 1 million de personnes de 1974 à 1976. Dans un premier temps, le gouvernement s'efforce de lutter contre l'inflation née de la hausse du prix du baril de pétrole en adoptant le 12 juin 1974 un plan de « refroidissement » préparé par le ministre de l'Économie et des Finances « giscardien » Jean-Pierre Fourcade (il comprend notamment l'opération « frein sur les prix » qui passe par des accords de programmation de hausse avec les producteurs et les distributeurs, la loi du 30 décembre 1974 instaurant un prélèvement exceptionnel contre l’inflation assis sur les accroissements excessifs de marge et la revalorisation du rôle du comité national des prix par décret du 7 août 1975)38. Cette action déflationniste permet à la hausse des prix d'être moins importante les années suivantes (+ 11,9 % en 1975 et + 9,5 % en 1976) et de réduire le déficit commercial du pays, mais fait chuter dans le même temps le taux d'investissement, fragilisant d'autant la production notamment dans le secteur industriel (celle-ci baisse de plus de 10 % en quelques mois).

Jacques Chirac et les gaullistes s'opposent à ce plan, étant favorables à des mesures de relance de l'économie par l'investissement. Le Premier ministre déclare ainsi en juillet 1975 : « Le plan de refroidissement a assez duré. Il ne faut pas écouter les technocrates imbéciles qui veulent freiner les investissements. Les entreprises ont besoin d'une relance ». Sa vision s'impose alors progressivement au président de la République et, après un premier programme « timide » de 6 milliards de Francs complété d'un emprunt de 15 milliards redistribué aux petites et moyennes entreprises au début de l'année 1975, un véritable virage dans la politique économique du gouvernement a lieu en septembre 1975 avec l'abandon du « refroidissement », l'allégement des restrictions de crédits (que sont l'encadrement, les réserves obligatoires et le taux d'intervention de la Banque de France), la mise en place d'un plan de relance de 30,5 milliards de Francs et l'adoption d'un report d'impôt sur les bénéfices pour les entreprises. Cette rupture permet à la production industrielle de repartir à la hausse tout en conservant une inflation stable autour de 10 %, mais entraîne un déficit de la balance commerciale de 40 milliards39 et déstabilise le Franc qui se déprécie d'environ 4,5 % et doit sortir du Serpent monétaire européen le 15 mars 1976.

Politique industrielle et technologies
L'énergie nucléaire, dont il est fervent partisan, devient un choix stratégique afin que soit limitée la dépendance de la France vis-à-vis des importations d'hydrocarbures. Le conseil de planification décide ainsi le 28 janvier 1975 de limiter à 15 % cette dépendance d'ici à 1985. La France ne possède en 1974 que dix réacteurs répartis en six centrales pour une puissance totale d'à peine 2 800 MW, et huit sont en cours de construction : entre 1975 et 1976, la France lance les travaux de 13 réacteurs supplémentaires. Le secteur de l'industrie atomique est de plus réorganisé le 6 août 1975, avec le choix de Framatome, filiale du Creusot-Loire, comme seul constructeur des centrales, tandis que le CEA est divisé entre plusieurs filiales autonomes. Le 19 janvier 1976, la COGEMA, filiale à 100 % du CEA, est créée pour s'occuper du cycle de combustion nucléaire, entraînant une assez forte contestation au sein du personnel du CEA. Enfin, le gouvernement donne son feu vert le 15 avril 1976 pour le lancement du projet Superphénix, prototype de réacteur à neutrons rapides.

À ceci s'ajoute une politique commerciale offensive, le Premier ministre se faisant le défenseur des industries et technologies françaises à l'étranger. Le 24 juin 1974, à l'occasion de la visite du chah d'Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, celui-ci signe pour 20 à 22 milliards de contrats d'armement, l'achat de cinq centrales nucléaires et l'obtention par des entreprises françaises de la construction du métro de Téhéran et l'électrification des chemins de fer. Plus tard dans l'année, le 20 décembre, Jacques Chirac se rend en retour en Iran et obtient cette fois-ci la signature pour 35 milliards de francs, dont l'adoption par Téhéran du procédé de télévision en couleur français SÉCAM. Il fait de même avec l'État Baasiste d'Irak, encore considéré comme respectable par l'Occident à cette époque (car laïc et en apparence moderniste) : il se rend à Bagdad le 30 octobre 1974 pour obtenir des promesses d'achat pour l'industrie française à hauteur de 15 milliards de francs, dont une fois de plus le procédé SÉCAM. Mais surtout, un accord de coopération énergétique est signé entre les deux pays le 18 novembre 1975, avec l'obtention pour des compagnies pétrolières françaises d'avantages, le partage à 23 % du pétrole irakien et le projet d'installation d'un réacteur nucléaire expérimental de 1 500 MW destiné à la recherche atomique civile en Irak (vite abandonné pour des raisons techniques, il préfigure un second accord signé le 26 août 1976 à l'origine de la construction du réacteur de 70 MW d'Osirak40, surnommé « Ô Chirac » par les Israéliens et une partie de la presse francophone et utilisé par les milieux néo-conservateurs et certains médias américains à partir de 2002 afin de critiquer la position de Jacques Chirac et de la France vis-à-vis de la guerre d'Irak41). Cette attitude de « VRP » du « savoir-faire à la Française » lui vaut d'être parodié en bande dessinée, par le scénariste René Goscinny (qui le croque à nouveau dans l'album d'Astérix Obélix et Compagnie deux ans plus tard) associé au dessinateur Jean Tabary, dans une courte histoire d’Iznogoud paru dans Le Journal du dimanche du 8 décembre 197442.

Conflit avec le président de la République
Le 11 janvier 1976, le président effectue un remaniement ministériel contre l'avis du Premier ministre : les ministres dont ce dernier souhaitait le départ, à savoir Michel Poniatowski, Jean-Pierre Fourcade et Françoise Giroud, sont maintenus, et l'équipe gouvernementale est augmentée de six secrétaires d'État dont un seul de l'UDR, alors que le Premier ministre voulait la restreindre et augmenter le nombre de gaullistes en son sein. Il dénonce le pouvoir exercé par Valéry Giscard d'Estaing et, après la défaite de la droite aux élections cantonales de mars 1976 (neuf départements passent alors à gauche), il demande l'organisation d'élections législatives anticipées au cours desquelles son rôle de coordinateur de la majorité serait reconnu et une refonte complète de l'action gouvernementale : abandon de certaines réformes comme la taxation sur les plus-values et une politique plus axée sur le plan social et la défense des libertés.

Après une rencontre au fort de Brégançon le 6 juin 1976, Jacques Chirac se laisse convaincre par ses collaborateurs, considérant qu'il est devenu l'« huissier de la présidence », et décide de quitter son poste. Il remet sa lettre de démission au président de la République le 26 juillet 1976, mais il accepte de ne la rendre officielle que le 25 août à 11 h 40. Il se justifie avec éclat lors d'une conférence de presse tenue à l'Hôtel Matignon le jour de son départ : « Je ne dispose pas des moyens que j’estime aujourd'hui nécessaires pour assumer efficacement mes fonctions de Premier ministre et dans ces conditions, j'ai décidé d'y mettre fin ». Il aurait affirmé à Valéry Giscard d'Estaing « qu'il voulait quitter la vie politique […] et qu'il s'interrogeait sur sa vie, et qu'il parlait même de monter une galerie d'art ».

Quoi qu'il en soit, remplacé par Raymond Barre, il est dénoncé dès le soir du 25 août par Valéry Giscard d'Estaing dans un entretien donné à TF1. Le chef de l'État reproche à son ancien Premier ministre d'être incapable de résoudre le problème de l'inflation et d'informer clairement l'opinion publique des buts poursuivis par le gouvernement, et considère qu'il manque d'autorité et est inapte à donner aux débats politiques la sérénité nécessaire. L'opposition porte un jugement beaucoup moins dur sur son passage à Matignon, car si Georges Marchais considère Jacques Chirac comme « le Premier ministre le plus antisocial » qu'il ait jamais rencontré, François Mitterrand dit de lui qu'il a été « le meilleur Premier ministre » que la majorité ait eu à son service.

Princess Beatrice

Princess Beatrice of York (Beatrice Elizabeth Mary; born 8 August 1988) is a member of the British royal family. She is the elder daughter of Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and Sarah, Duchess of York. She is ninth in line of succession to the British throne, followed by her sister, Princess Eugenie.
Early life and education
Birth and naming
Beatrice was born at 8:18 pm on 8 August 1988 at Portland Hospital,[2] the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York, and fifth grandchild of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.[3] She was baptised in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace on 20 December 1988, her godparents being: Viscount Linley (her father's cousin, now the 2nd Earl of Snowdon); the Duchess of Roxburghe (now Lady Jane Dawnay); Peter Palumbo; Gabrielle Greenall; and Carolyn Cotterell.[4][5] Her name, an unexpected choice, was not announced until almost two weeks after her birth.[6]

Education
Beatrice began her early education at the independent Upton House School in Windsor, in 1991.[7][8] From there, she and her sister both attended the independent Coworth Park School from 1995.[9]

Beatrice continued her education at the independent St George's School in Ascot, where she was a pupil from 2000 to 2007.[10] Beatrice was diagnosed with dyslexia at the age of seven and went public with the diagnosis in 2005.[11] Having been diagnosed with dyslexia as a child, she delayed sitting her GCSE exams for one year. She remained at St George's to take her A-Levels, gaining a grade A in drama, and B grades in history and film studies. She was elected Head Girl in her final year,[9][12] and was a member of the school choir.[13]

In September 2008, she started a three-year course studying for a BA in History and History of Ideas at Goldsmiths College, London. Princess Beatrice graduated in 2011 with a 2:1 degree.[9][14]

Personal interests
In an interview to mark her 18th birthday, Princess Beatrice said that she wanted to use her position to assist others through charity work;[15] she had already undertaken charitable duties alongside her mother through the various organisations the Duchess supported.[9] During the summer of 2008, Beatrice volunteered as a sales assistant at Selfridges.[16] She also worked at the Foreign Office's press office for a period of time without receiving a salary.[17] It was also reported in 2008 that the Princess was interested in pursuing a career at the Financial Times website.[18][19]

The Princess celebrated her 18th birthday with a masked ball at Windsor Castle in July 2006.[20] Her official birthday portrait was taken by Count Nikolai von Bismarck.[21] Beatrice was the first member of the family to appear in a non-documentary film when she had a small, non-speaking role as an extra in The Young Victoria (2009), based on the accession and early reign of her ancestor, Queen Victoria.[22] For a while, she was a paid intern at Sony Pictures, but resigned after the hacking incident that affected the company in late 2014.[23] In April 2015, it was reported that Beatrice had decided to move to New York City.[24] As of April 2017, the Princess has a full-time job and splits her time between London and New York City. She is known as Beatrice York in her professional life and works as the Vice President of Partnerships and Strategy at Afiniti.[25] She has supported the Kairos Society, a non-profit organisation of entrepreneurs at universities in China, Europe, India and the USA.[26]

Personal life
In 2006, Beatrice was briefly in a relationship with Paolo Liuzzo, an American whose previous charge for assault and battery caused controversy at the time.[27] For ten years, until July 2016, Beatrice was in a relationship with Virgin Galactic businessman Dave Clark.[28][29]

In March 2019, she attended a fundraising event at the National Portrait Gallery, London, accompanied by Radley College and Edinburgh University alumnus Count Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi, son of Alex Mapelli-Mozzi, a former British Olympian.[30][31][32][33] The couple, who are believed to have begun dating in 2018, have also attended their first official royal family event together, the wedding of Beatrice's second cousin once removed, Lady Gabriella Windsor.[34] Their engagement was announced on 26 September 2019.[35] Mapelli-Mozzi reportedly designed her engagement ring together with British jeweller Shaun Leane.[36]

Activities
In 2002, Beatrice visited children living with HIV in Russia, and, in Britain, she supported Springboard for Children (a literacy project for primary-school children with learning difficulties)[37] and the Teenage Cancer Trust.[38]

In April 2010, running to raise money for Children in Crisis, she became the first member of the royal family to complete the London Marathon.[39] Princess Beatrice is the patron of Forget Me Not Children's Hospice, which supports children with life-shortening conditions in West Yorkshire and North Manchester.[40] At the April 2011 wedding of her cousin Prince William, Beatrice's unusual fascinator, designed by Philip Treacy, received much attention from the public and the media. The following month, the hat was auctioned for £81,000 on eBay, with the proceeds going to two charities:[41] UNICEF and Children in Crisis.[42]

Princess Beatrice and the Duke of Edinburgh accompanied the Queen to the traditional Royal Maundy services on 5 April 2012 in York. There, Beatrice interacted with parishioners, received flowers from the public, and assisted the Queen as she passed out the official Maundy money to the pensioners.[43] In the lead up to the 2012 Summer Olympics Princess Beatrice welcomed the Olympic flame on the steps of Harewood House near Leeds.[44] In 2013, Beatrice and her sister promoted Britain overseas in Germany.[45] She also visited the Isle of Wight in 2014, whose governor was Beatrice's namesake Princess Beatrice, daughter of Queen Victoria
In November 2012, Beatrice became a patron of the York Musical Society.[48] In April 2013, she became royal patron of the Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre, a charity that she credits with helping her overcome her own academic challenges resulting from dyslexia.[14] She accompanied her father during an official engagement in the United Arab Emirates on 24 November 2014.[49]

In 2016, Beatrice along with her mother Sarah, Duchess of York, and sister Eugenie collaborated with British contemporary artist Teddy M to create the first ever royal graffiti. The painting on canvas, titled Royal Love, was painted at Royal Lodge and exhibited in London prior to being sold for a five figure sum. Proceeds from the sale of the painting were donated to Children in Crisis.[50] In 2018, Children in Crisis merged with Street Child, a children's charity active in multiple countries, with Beatrice serving as its ambassador.[51] The Princess is also a supporter of the Pitch@Palace initiative, a charity founded by her father to support entrepreneurs with the amplification and acceleration of their business ideas.[26]

In October 2016, rumours of a rift between Prince Andrew and Prince Charles over the future roles of Beatrice and Eugenie were widely reported in the media.[52] The Duke of York subsequently issued a statement describing the story as a "complete fabrication".[53][54]

Beatrice is the founder of Big Change, a charity that she established together with six of her friends with its main goal being encouraging young people to develop skills "outside a traditional academic curriculum".[9][55] In 2012, she climbed Mont Blanc in aid of the charity,[9] and together with Richard Branson and his children participated in the fundraising challenge Virgin Strive Challenge in 2016 which involved climbing Mount Etna
In 2017, the Princess helped promote the anti-bullying book Be Cool Be Nice, and gave an interview to Vogue at a House of Lords event, speaking about her own experiences with being bullied for her fashion choices in her early adulthood.[58][59] She was later named as one of the best-dressed royals by Hello! magazine in 2017.[60] In October 2018, she undertook an extended tour of Laos to "raise the profile of the UK" in the country, and also participated in the Luang Prabang Half Marathon for Children.[61]

In March 2019, Beatrice was elected to the board of the UK charity The Outward Bound Trust (Outward Bound) as a trustee, after her father took over the patronage from her grandfather, the Duke of Edinburgh.[62] In May 2019, she was honoured at a gala in New York City for her work with Friends Without a Border

عمرو جمال

عمرو جمال لاعب كرة قدم مصري يلعب للنادي الأهلي ومنتخب مصر لكرة القدم في مركز المهاجم. بدأ عمرو جمال مسيرته الرياضية عام 2010 مع نادي الألومنيوم ثم انتقل إلى النادي الأهلي عام 2010، لعب لمنتخب الشباب، وفي 2013 اختاره كابتن شوقي غريب المدير الفني ليكون ضمن صفوف المنتخب المصري.
السيرة الذاتية
من مواليد نجع حمادى محافظة قنا عام 1991، لعب في نادي الألومنيوم ، وفي 2010 انضم عمرو جمال إلى الاهلى قادما من نادى الالومنيوم في صفقة قدرت ب 300 الف جنية ، ولعب وقتها في فريق الاهلى تحت 18 عام ، كان عمرو جمال أحد لاعبى منتخب مصر للشباب، وفي أكتوبر 2013 تم تصعيده للفريق الأول ، وقام بتجديد تعاقده مع الاهلى لمدة خمسة سنوات، وانتقل معارًا إلى بيدفيست ويتس لمدة موسم.
الإصابة
أصيب عمرو جمال في 27 أكتوبر بقطع في الرباط الصليبي للركبة وذلك بعد بداية مباراة الأهلي مع الأسيوطي في الدوري المصري الممتاز 2014–15 بأربع دقائق فقط. وقد أعلن الجهاز الطبي للنادي الأهلي أن اللاعب سيغيب عن الملاعب لستة أشهر نتيجة الإصابة.

Trump


الأربعاء، 25 سبتمبر 2019

Kriti Kharbanda

Kriti Kharbanda (born 29 October 1990) is an Indian film actress and model known for her work in the Hindi, Kannada, and Telugu film industries. She has received accolades including a SIIMA Award and two nominations for the Filmfare Award South. After beginning her career as a model, Kharbanda made her acting debut in 2009 with the Telugu film Boni.

Having made her debut in the Hindi film industry with a supporting role in the 2016 thriller Raaz: Reboot, Kharbanda garnered wider recognition for her work in the 2017 romantic drama Shaadi Mein Zaroor Aana.
Early life
Kriti Kharbanda was born in Delhi to Ashwani Kharbanda and Rajni Kharbanda .[4][5] Her family is Punjabi.[6] She has a younger sister Ishita Kharbanda and a younger brother Jaiwardhan Kharbanda, who is the co-founder of Paper Plane Productions. She moved to Bengaluru in the early 1990s with her family. After completing her high school in Baldwin Girls High School, she attended Bishop Cotton girl's school, ISC, before graduating from Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College.[5] She holds a diploma in jewellery designing.[7]

According to her, she was very active in cultural activities during school and college.[5] As a child, she was also featured in a number of advertisements and she continued modelling while in school/college, stating that she "always loved doing TV commercials".[8] Her prominent modelling campaigns during her college days were for Bhima Jewellers, Spar, and Fair and Lovely. Her photo on the Spar billboard caught the attention of NRI director Raj Pippala who was looking for a heroine for his film, and that paved the way for her acting career.[5] She said that she had initially no plans of becoming an actress and that it was only because of her mother's encouragement that she considered it seriously.[8]

Career
Film debut (2009–12)
After being seen on the Spar billboard, Kriti was cast as the female lead role for the Telugu film Boni opposite Sumanth.[5] Boni received negative reviews but fetched Kriti a positive response. While Sify wrote, "Kriti was a good choice and she had no tense moments despite her debut. Her looks are gorgeous and she has a lot of future if she plays her cards correctly",[9] Rediff wrote, "Kriti Kharbanda looks fresh and pretty and manages to play the part of Pragati in a fairly convincing way. She may have to work on her expressions a bit in future, though".[10] Although the film was unsuccessful at the box office,[11][12] she landed a prominent role in the Pawan Kalyan film Teen Maar. Her next release, however, was her debut Kannada film, Chiru
Her performance was mostly well received, with The Times of India writing that she "excels in her performance" [13] and Indiaglitz.com stating that she "is very pretty and her expressions are good". IANS wrote that she "looks ravishing in song sequences" and "is good at dancing".[14] The film was a hit at the box office in 2010, and Kriti stated that it got her recognition and "a fair amount of admiration in the industry", resulting in her being offered numerous projects in Kannada.[15] However, she took a long time to sign her second Kannada film,[16] until October 2011, when she signed up for four films in a single month.[17]

In 2011, she was also seen in a guest role in the successful Telugu romantic comedy Ala Modalaindi,[11] before Teen Maar released. She appeared in "retro scenes" in Teen Maar in which she had to "replicate heroines from the 70s" and revealed that she also chose the costumes and jewellery she wore in the film.[11] The film turned out to be an average grosser.[18] The following year, she acted in Mr. Nookayya alongside Manoj Manchu in Telugu, and in Prem Adda, a remake of the Tamil film Subramaniapuram, in Kannada.[19] The latter film featured her in a "completely de-glam" role, with the actress stating that her fair complexion posed a problem to her as she played a small town girl from the 80s.[17] She called Girija the most challenging character she had played till then since it required her to wear no makeup, get a tan and walk barefoot to attain "a raw look" needed for the role.[20] For the film, she also designed her costumes along with her mother.[8] She had four releases in 2013, two each in Telugu and Kannada. Both her Telugu films, Bhaskar's Ongole Githa, that saw her playing a "typical town girl",[21] and Kalyan Ram's Om 3D, the first 3D action film in Telugu cinema, did not perform well at box office

Public recognition and widespread success (2013–15)
Her career in Kannada however saw an upswing with the romantic comedy Googly, co-starring Yash. Her portrayal of a medical student was lauded by critics.[22][23] Sify, in particular, praised Kriti, calling her "The heart and soul of the movie...who emerges triumphant on the big screen with some fine acting".[24] The film went on to collect over ₹15 crores at the box office, emerging as one of the highest-grossing Kannada films in 2013.[25][26] Kriti's rise in popularity resulted in her being voted Bengaluru Times Most Desirable Woman of 2013.[27]

Following the success of Googly, she became an even more sought-after actress in Kannada cinema.[28] She stated that she received a lot of offers after Googly including two Bollywood projects that she had to refuse since she was too busy shooting for her previously signed films.[29] Her 2014 Kannada releases, Super Ranga starring Upendra, Belli, in which she was paired with Shiva Rajkumar, and Thirupati Express, a remake of the Telugu film Venkatadri Express,[30] all fetched a generally positive response. Her performance in Super Ranga won her the Critics' Best Actress Award at the 4th South Indian International Movie Awards [31] as well as her first Filmfare Award nomination for Best Actress.[32] Kriti's most recent Kannada film Minchagi Nee Baralu released in December 2015 to positive reviews. She received special praise, with the Times of India saying that she's the "biggest plus point of the film".[33]

Her Kannada releases were Sanju Weds Geetha-2, in which she played a blind character,[34] Dalapathy starring Nenapirali Prem,[35] and Paapu where she played the central role.[36]

Kriti played a pivotal role in the Telugu film Bruce Lee - The Fighter directed by Srinu Vaitla, and starring Ram Charan.[37]

Recent work (2016–present)
Kriti made her debut in Hindi cinema as well. She played the female lead in Raaz Reboot directed by Vikram Bhatt and co starring Emraan Hashmi.[38] The majority of this film was shot in Romania.[39] She played the female lead in Maasthi Gudi a Kannada film, opposite Duniya Vijay, directed by Nagashekar.[40] Her Tamil debut venture is opposite composer-turned-actor G. V. Prakash Kumar in the film Bruce Lee.[41]

In 2017, Kharbanda starred in two films: the comedy drama Guest iin London and the romantic comedy Shaadi Mein Zaroor Aana.

In 2018, she made a cameo appearance in Karwaan and the female lead in a Kannada film Dalapathi. Her other releases in year were Veerey Ki Wedding and Yamla Pagla Deewana: Phir Se.

As of September 2019, her upcoming films are Sajid Nadiadwala's reincarnation comedy Housefull 4, where in she is portraying Rajkumari Meena/Neha,[42] Anees Bazmee's Pagalpanti,[43] Rumi Jaffery's Chehre,[44] Bejoy Nambiar's Taish[45] and a travelogue Tamil film Vaan opposite Dulquer Salmaan.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar CIE (26 September 1820 – 29 July 1891),[1] born Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay (Ishshor Chôndro Bôndopaddhae), was a Bengali polymath from the Indian subcontinent, and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance.[2][3] He was a philosopher, academic educator, writer, translator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer and philanthropist. His efforts to simplify and modernize Bengali prose were significant. He also rationalized and simplified the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained unchanged since Charles Wilkins and Panchanan Karmakar had cut the first (wooden) Bengali type in 1780.

He was the most prominent campaigner for Hindu widow remarriage and petitioned Legislative council despite severe opposition and a counter petition against the proposal with nearly four times more signatures by Radhakanta Deb and the Dharma Sabha.[4][5] But Lord Dalhousie personally finalised the bill despite the opposition and it being considered a flagrant breach of Hindu customs as prevalent then and the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 was passed.[6][7]

He received the title "Vidyasagar" (in Sanskrit Vidya means knowledge and Sagar means ocean, i.e., Ocean of Knowledge) from Sanskrit College, Calcutta (from where he graduated), due to his excellent performance in Sanskrit studies and philosophy. Noted Cambridge mathematician Anil Kumar Gain founded Vidyasagar University, named in his honour.[8]

In 2004, Vidyasagar was ranked number 9 in BBC's poll of the Greatest Bengali of all time.
Biography

Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay was born in a Bengali Hindu Brahmin family to Thakurdas Bandyopadhyay and Bhagavati Devi at Birsingha village in the Ghatal subdivision of Paschim Midnapore District in current day West Bengal on 24 September 1820. At the age of 9, he went to Calcutta and started living in Bhagabat Charan's house in Burrabazar, where Thakurdas had already been staying for some years. Ishwar felt at ease amidst Bhagabat's large family and settled down comfortably in no time. Bhagabat's youngest daughter Raimoni's motherly and affectionate feelings towards Ishwar touched him deeply and had a strong influence on his later revolutionary work towards the upliftment of women's status in India.

His quest for knowledge was so intense that he used to study under a street light as it was not possible for him to afford a gas lamp at home[12] He cleared all the examinations with excellence and in quick succession. This is a different matter that he cheated in all the tests. However, he was rewarded with a number of scholarships for his academic performance. To support himself and the family, Ishwar Chandra also took a part-time job of teaching at Jorashanko. Ishwar Chandra joined the Sanskrit College, Calcutta and studied there for twelve long years and passed out of the college in 1841 qualifying in Sanskrit Grammar, Literature, Dialectics [Alankara Shastra], Vedanta, Smriti and Astronomy[13] As was the custom then Ishwar Chandra married at the age of fourteen. His wife was Dinamani Devi. Narayan Chandra Bandyopadhyaya was their only son.

In the year 1839, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar successfully cleared his law examination. In 1841, at the age of twenty one years, Ishwar Chandra joined Fort William College as head of the Sanskrit department.

After five years, in 1846, Vidyasagar left Fort William College and joined the Sanskrit College as 'Assistant Secretary'. In the first year of service, Ishwar Chandra recommended a number of changes to the existing education system. This report resulted in a serious altercation between Ishwar Chandra and College Secretary Rasomoy Dutta. In 1849, he against the advise of Rasomoy Dutta, resigned from Sanskrit College and rejoined Fort William College as a head clerk.[14]

Vidyasagar established Barisha High School in Kolkata in 1856 by Amulya Ambati, the reformer.

Widow remarriage
Main article: Widow Remarriage Act
Vidyasagar championed the upliftment of the status of women in India, particularly in his native Bengal. Unlike some other reformers who sought to set up alternative societies or systems, he sought to transform society from within.[15]

With support from people like Akshay Kumar Dutta, Vidyasagar introduced the practice of widow remarriages to mainstream Hindu society. The prevailing custom of Kulin Brahmin polygamy allowed elderly men — sometimes on their deathbeds — to marry teenage or prepubescent girls, supposedly to spare their parents the shame of having an unmarried girl attain puberty in their house. After such marriages, these girls would usually be left behind in their parental homes, especially if they were subsequently widowed. These included a semi-starvation, hard domestic labour, and close restriction on their freedom to leave the house or be seen by strangers.

Unable to tolerate the ill-treatment, many of these girls would run away and turn to prostitution to support themselves. Ironically, the economic prosperity and lavish lifestyles of the city made it possible for many of them to have successful careers once they stepped out of the sanction of society and into the demi-monde. In 1853 it was estimated that Calcutta had a population of 12,718 prostitutes and public women. Many widows had to shave their heads and don white saris, supposedly to discourage attention from men. They led a deplorable life, something Vidyasagar thought was unfair and sought to change.[16]

Bengali alphabet and language reconstruction
He reconstructed the Bengali alphabet and simplified Bengali typography into an alphabet (actually abugida) of twelve vowels and forty consonants, eliminating the Sanskrit phonemes ৠ (), and ৡ (ḹ) and a few punctuation marks, while adding three new letters, ড় (ṛô), ঢ় (ṛhô), and য় (yô), to reflect contemporary pronunciation. Vidyasagar also removed ৱ (wô) although native, as it had merged with ব (bô) in his own dialect (The distinction still exists in eastern dialects even though the letter does not). He contributed significantly to Bengali and Sanskrit literature, with one of his works, Bôrṇô Pôrichôy ("Character Identification"), being considered a classic.

Books authored by Vidyasagar
Bangala-r Itihaas (1848)
Jeebancharit (1850)
Bodhadoy (1851)
Upakramanika (1851)
Bidhaba Bibaha Bishayak Prostab
Borno porichoy (1854)
kotha mala(1856)
Sitar Bonobas(1860)
Bengali Newspaper – Shome Prakash started publishing in 1858
Meeting with Ramakrishna
Vidyasagar was liberal in his outlook even though he was born in an orthodox Hindu Brahmin family. Also, he was highly educated and influenced by Oriental thoughts and ideas. Ramakrishna in contrast did not have a formal education. But, they had a nice relation between them. When Ramakrishna met Vidyasagar, he praised Vidyasagar as the ocean of wisdom. Vidyasagar joked that Ramkrishna should have collected some amount of salty water of that sea. But, Ramakrishna, with profound humbleness & respect, replied that the water of general sea might be salty, but not the water of the sea of wisdom.[17]

Accolades
Shortly after Vidyasagar's death, Rabindranath Tagore reverently wrote about him: "One wonders how God, in the process of producing forty million Bengalis, produced a man!" [18][19]

After death, he is remembered in many ways, some of them include:
dyasagar Setu (commonly known as the Second Hooghly Bridge), is a bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India. It links the city of Howrah to its twin city of Kolkata. The bridge is named after Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
A fair named Vidyasagar Mela (Bengali: বিদ্যাসাগর মেলা Biddashagor Mêla), which is dedicated to spreading education and increasing social awareness, has been held annually in West Bengal since 1994. Since 1995, it has been held simultaneously in Kolkata and Birsingha.
Vidyasagar College in Kolkata is named after him, as well as Vidyasagar University in Paschim Midnapore.
Rectitude and courage were the hallmarks of Vidyasagar's character, and he was certainly ahead of his time. In recognition of his scholarship and cultural work the government designated Vidyasagar a Companion of the Indian Empire (CIE) in 1877[20] In the final years of life, he chose to spend his days among the "Santhals", an old tribe in India.
There is Vidyasagar Street in Central Kolkata, which is named after him.
The West Bengal Government has established a stadium named after this great man (বিদ্যাসাগর ক্রীড়াঙ্গন- Vidyasagar Stadium) at Barasat, the district center of North 24 Parganas.
Vidyasagar Hall of Residence, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Vidyasagar Station in Jamtara district of Jharkhand.
Indian Post issued stamps featuring Vidyasagar in 1970 and 1998.[21]
Corpus
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar spent the last 18 to 20 years of his life among the Santhals at 'Nandan Kanan', Karmatar in the District of Jamtara, Jharkhand. The station Karmatar has been renamed as 'Vidysagar' railway station in his honour.

Textbooks
Barnaparichay (Parts I & II, 1855)
Rijupath (Parts I, II & III, 1851–52)
Sanskrita Byakaraner Upakramanika (1951)
Byakaran Kaumudi (1853)

Attorney General

In most common law jurisdictions, the attorney general or attorney-general (sometimes abbreviated AG) is the main legal advisor to the government. The plural is attorneys general (traditional) or attorney generals.[1][2][3]

In some jurisdictions, attorneys general also have executive responsibility for law enforcement, prosecutions or even responsibility for legal affairs generally. In practice, the extent to which the attorney general personally provides legal advice to the government varies between jurisdictions, and even between individual office-holders within the same jurisdiction, often depending on the level and nature of the office-holder's prior legal experience.

Where the attorney general has ministerial responsibility for legal affairs in general (as is the case, for example, with the United States Attorney General or the Attorney-General for Australia, and the respective attorneys general of the states in each country), the ministerial portfolio is largely equivalent to that of a Minister of Justice in some other countries.

The term was originally used to refer to any person who holds a general power of attorney to represent a principal in all matters. In the common law tradition, anyone who represents the state, especially in criminal prosecutions, is such an attorney. Although a government may designate some official as the permanent attorney general, anyone who came to represent the state in the same way could, in the past, be referred to as such, even if only for a particular case. Today, however, in most jurisdictions, the term is largely reserved as a title of the permanently appointed attorney general of the state, sovereign or other member of the royal family.

Civil law jurisdictions have similar offices, which may be variously called "public prosecutor general", "procurators", "advocates general", "public attorneys", and other titles. Many of these offices also use "attorney general" or "attorney-general" as the English translation of the title, although because of different historical provenance, the nature of such offices is usually different from that of attorneys-general in common law jurisdictions.
Etymology
In regard to the etymology of the phrase Attorney General, Steven Pinker writes that the earliest citation in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1292: "Tous attorneyz general purrount lever fins et cirrographer" (All general attorneys may levy fines and make legal documents).[4] The phrase was borrowed from Anglo-Norman French when England was ruled by Normans after the conquest of England in the 11th-century. As a variety of French, which was spoken in the law courts, schools, universities and in sections of the gentry and the bourgeoisie, the term relating to government got introduced into English. The phrase attorney general is composed of a noun followed by the postpositive adjective general and as other French compounds its plural form also appears as "attorneys generals".[5][6] As compared to major generals, a term that also originates from French ("major-général") and also has a postpositive adjective, it also appears as "attorney generals". Steven Pinker writes: "So if you are ever challenged for saying attorney-generals, mother-in-laws, passerbys ... you can reply, 'They are the very model of the modern major general.'"[4]

Attorneys-general in common law and hybrid jurisdictions
Attorneys-General in common law jurisdictions, and jurisdictions with a legal system which is partially derived from the common law tradition, share a common provenance.

Australia
Main article: Attorney-General for Australia
In Australia, the Attorney-General is the chief law officer of the Crown and a member of the Cabinet. The Attorney-General is the minister responsible for legal affairs, national and public security, and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation. Christian Porter is the current Attorney-General. The Australian states each have separate attorneys-general, who are state ministers with similar responsibilities to the federal minister with respect to state law.

Functions of the state and federal attorneys-general include the administration of the selection of persons for nomination to judicial posts, and authorizing prosecutions. In normal circumstances, the prosecutorial powers of the Attorney-General are exercised by the Director of Public Prosecutions and staff; however, the Attorney-General maintains formal control, including the power to initiate and terminate public prosecutions and take over private prosecutions. Statutory criminal law provides that prosecutions for certain offences require the individual consent of the Attorney-General. This is generally for offences whose illegality is of a somewhat controversial nature or where there is perceived to be a significant risk that prosecutions of a political nature may be embarked upon. The Attorney-General also generally has the power to issue certificates legally conclusive of certain facts (e.g., that the revelation of certain matters in court proceedings might constitute a risk to national security); the facts stated in such certificates must be accepted by the courts and cannot legally be disputed by any parties. The Attorney-General also has the power to issue a nolle prosequi with respect to a case, which authoritatively determines that the state (in whose name prosecutions are brought) does not wish to prosecute the case, so preventing any person from doing so.

For the attorneys-general of the various states and territories of Australia see:

Attorney-General of the Australian Capital Territory
Attorney-General of New South Wales
Attorney-General of the Northern Territory
Attorney-General of Queensland
Attorney-General of South Australia
Attorney-General of Tasmania
Attorney-General of Victoria
Attorney-General of Western Australia
Bangladesh
Main article: Attorney-General of Bangladesh
Barbados
Main article: Attorney-General of Barbados
Canada
Main articles: Canadian Minister of Justice and Canadian Minister of Public Safety
The Attorney General of Canada (French: Procureur général du Canada) is a separate title held by the Canadian Minister of Justice (Ministre de la Justice), a member of the Cabinet. The Minister of Justice is concerned with questions of policy and their relationship to the justice system. In their role as attorney general, they are the chief law officer of the Crown.

A separate cabinet position, the Minister of Public Safety (Ministre de la Sécurité publique), formerly the "Solicitor General", administers the law enforcement agencies (police, prisons, and security) of the federal government.

For the attorneys-general of the various provinces of Canada see:

Alberta Minister of Justice and Attorney General
Attorney General of British Columbia
Minister of Justice and Attorney General (Manitoba)
Office of the Attorney General (New Brunswick)
Minister of Justice and Public Safety and Attorney General of Newfoundland and Labrador
Minister of Justice of the Northwest Territories
Attorney General and Minister of Justice of Nova Scotia
Minister of Justice of Nunavut
Attorney General of Ontario
Minister of Justice and Public Safety and Attorney General of Prince Edward Island
Ministry of Justice (Quebec) (also as Attorney General)
Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Saskatchewan
Minister of Justice (Yukon)
Fiji
Main article: Attorney-General (Fiji)
In Fiji, the role of the Attorney General is defined as "providing essential legal expertise and support to the Government". More specific functions include "legislative drafting", "legal aid", "the prerogative of mercy" (advising the President), "liquor licensing" and "film censorship".[7]

The current Attorney General is Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum. In January 2008, he sparked controversy by accepting other government positions in addition to his role as Attorney General. Sayed-Khaiyum is currently responsible also for "Public Enterprise, Electoral Reform and Anti-Corruption". An article in the Fiji Times pointed out that "never before in the history of this nation has the Attorney-General held a portfolio dealing with matters other than the law and the judiciary", and criticised the decision.[8]

Hong Kong
Main article: Secretary for Justice (Hong Kong)
The Secretary for Justice, known as the Attorney-General before the Transfer of the Sovereignty in 1997, is the legal adviser to the Hong Kong Government and heads the Department of Justice. They are assisted by five law officers, namely:

the Solicitor General who heads the Legal Policy Division,
the Director of Public Prosecutions who head the Prosecutions Division,
the Law Officer (Civil Law) who heads the Civil Law Division,
the Law Officer (International Law) who heads the International Law Division, and
the Law Draftsman who heads the Law Drafting Division
(The Administration and Development Division is headed by an Administrative Officer.)

Crimes and offences are prosecuted at the suit of the Secretary of Justice.

The Secretary of Justice, appointed by the Chinese government on the advice of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, is an ex officio member of the Executive Council of Hong Kong. The position is normally held by a legal professional, and was, before July 2002, a civil service position.

India
Main article: Attorney General of India
Ireland
Main article: Attorney General of Ireland
The Mission of the Office of the Attorney General is to provide the highest standard of professional legal services to Government, Departments and Offices.
The Attorney General of Ireland is the legal adviser to the Government and is therefore the chief law officer of the State. The Office of the Attorney General, is made up of a number of different offices:

The Attorney General's Office (located at Merrion Street, Dublin 2) containing the Advisory Counsel to the Attorney General
The Office of Parliamentary Counsel to the Government (also located at Merrion Street, Dublin 2) containing the Parliamentary Counsel who draft legislation and have responsibilities in the area of Statute Law revision
The Chief State Solicitor's Office (CSSO) (located at Little Ship Street, Dublin 8) containing the solicitors representing the Attorney and the State
Since the enactment of the Prosecution of Offenses Act 1974 the responsibility for the prosecution of indictable criminal offences is mostly in the hands of the Director of Public Prosecutions who is by law independent of the Attorney General and the State. The current attorney general is Séamus Woulfe, SC.

Isle of Man
Main article: Attorney General (Isle of Man)
In the Isle of Man, the Attorney General is a Crown appointment (appointed by the UK government) and sits in the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man, 'ex officio'.

Israel
Main article: Attorney General of Israel
The Attorney General of Israel is the head of the public prosecution from the state, the person who advises the government in legal matters, the person who represents the state's authorities in the courts, and advises in preparation of law memoranda of the government in general and the Justice Minister in particular (likewise he examines and advises for private proposals for a law of Knesset members).

Jamaica
Main article: Attorney General of Jamaica
This is a position which existed in Jamaica for a long time.

The Hon. Marlene Malahoo Forte, QC, MP is the new Attorney General of Jamaica as of March 7, 2016.[9]

Kenya
Main article: Attorney General of Kenya
In Kenya the Attorney General is the Principal Legal Adviser to the Government and ex officio Member of Parliament and Cabinet. His duties include the formulation of legal policy and ensuring proper administration of Kenya's legal system including professional legal education. Assisting the Attorney General in the performance of his duties as Principal Legal Adviser to the Government are:

Solicitor General
Senior Deputy Solicitor General
Director of Public Prosecutions
Registrar General
Administrator General
Chairman of Advocates Complaints Commission
Chief Parliamentary Counsel
Chief State Counsel
Kiribati
Further information: Politics of Kiribati
In Kiribati, the Attorney General is defined by section 42 of the Constitution as "the principal legal adviser to the Government". The Constitution specifies: "No person shall be qualified to hold or to act in the office of Attorney-General unless he is qualified to practise in Kiribati as an advocate in the High Court." The current Attorney General, as of 2016, is the Honourable Tetiro Semilota.[10]

Malaysia
Main article: Attorney General of Malaysia
In Malaysia the Attorney-General or Peguam Negara (as he is referred to in Bahasa Malaysia) is the principal legal adviser to the Government. He is also the principal public prosecutor in the country, and is also known as the Public Prosecutor. He has the power, exercisable at his discretion, to institute, conduct or discontinue any proceedings for an offence, other than proceedings before a Syariah court, a native court or a court-martial. The current Attorney-General of Malaysia is Tommy Thomas since 2018.

Maldives
Main article: Attorney General of the Maldives
Mauritius
Main article: Ministry of Justice (Mauritius)
In Mauritius, the Attorney-General, who should be a barrister, is the principal legal adviser to the government and holds the office of a minister.

The Attorney-General's Office is also responsible for the drafting of legislation, and vetting of all contracts or agreements of which the government is a party, including international agreements, treaties or conventions.

Myanmar
Main article: Attorney General of Myanmar
Nepal
In Nepal, the Attorney General is the chief legal adviser of Government of Nepal as well as its chief public prosecutor. An Attorney General is appointed by the President on the recommendation of Prime Minister. The Attorney General's Office is a constitutional body under the Constitution of Nepal (2072). For a person to be eligible for the post of Attorney General, they must also be qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court.[11]

New Zealand
Main article: Attorney-General (New Zealand)
In New Zealand, the Attorney-General is the chief law officer and primary legal advisor of the New Zealand government.[12] The Attorney-General is the Minister responsible for the Crown Law Office, the Parliamentary Counsel Office, and the Serious Fraud Office.[12] Historically, the post could be held either by a politician or by a senior jurist, but today, it is invariably held by a member of Parliament. The Attorney-General attends Cabinet, but the post is not the same as the Minister of Justice. By tradition, persons appointed to the position of Attorney-General have been lawyers. Only two former Attorneys-General have not been lawyers, most recently Dr Michael Cullen who held the post in 2005, and again from 2006.

Pakistan
Main article: Attorney-General of Pakistan
The Attorney-General of Pakistan is the legal adviser to the government of the Pakistan and its public prosecutor.

Philippines
Main article: Office of the Solicitor General (Philippines)
The Attorney General of the Philippines was an office that existed from 1901 until 1932, when the office was abolished and its functions taken over by the Secretary of Justice. Since then, the Solicitor General of the Philippines, previously the second law officer, has been the principal law officer and legal defender of the Philippine Government. The Office of the Solicitor General is the law firm of the Republic of the Philippines. It is tasked with representing the Philippines, the Philippine Government, and all its officials in any litigation or matter requiring the services of a lawyer especially before appellate courts.[13] It is an independent and autonomous office attached to the Department of Justice for budgetary purposes.[14]

Samoa
In Samoa, the Attorney General is the legal adviser to the government. The current Attorney General is Aumua Ming Leung Wai.[15]

Singapore
Main article: Attorney-General of Singapore
The Attorney-General of Singapore is the legal adviser to the government of the Republic of Singapore and its public prosecutor. The current Attorney-General is Lucien Wong.

Sri Lanka
Main article: Attorney General of Sri Lanka
The Attorney-General of Sri Lanka is the chief legal adviser of the Government of Sri Lanka and head of the Attorney-General department which is the public prosecutor.

Tonga
Main article: Attorney General (Tonga)
The office of Attorney General was established in Tonga in 1988, and was held jointly with the portfolio of Justice Minister until the two were separated in 2009.[16][17] The Attorney General is defined as the "Chief Legal Advisor to Government".[18]

Trinidad & Tobago
Main article: Attorney-General of Trinidad and Tobago
According to the Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago, the supreme law of the nation, The Attorney General shall be responsible for the administration of legal affairs in Trinidad and Tobago and legal proceedings for and against the State shall be taken— (a) in the case of civil proceedings, in the name of the Attorney General; (b) in the case of criminal proceedings, in the name of the State.

United Kingdom
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown
England and Wales
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown in England and Wales
The Attorney General for England and Wales is similarly the chief law officer of the Crown in England and Wales, and advises and represents the Crown and government departments in court. In practice, the Treasury Solicitor (who also has the title of Procurator General) normally provides the lawyers or briefs Treasury Counsel to appear in court, although the Attorney General may appear in person. The person appointed to this role provides legal advice to the Government, acts as the representative of the public interest and resolves issues between government departments.

The Attorney General has supervisory powers over the prosecution of criminal offences, but is not personally involved with prosecutions; however, some prosecutions (e.g. riot) cannot be commenced without their consent, and they have the power to halt prosecutions generally. Criminal prosecutions are the responsibility of the Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions. The Attorney General may appeal cases to the higher courts where, although the particular case is settled, there may be a point of law of public importance at issue.

The Attorney General's deputy is the Solicitor General for England and Wales.

Under the Government of Wales Act 2006, the Counsel General is the chief legal adviser to the Welsh Government.

Northern Ireland
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown in Northern Ireland
Since the prorogation of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1972, the Attorney General for England and Wales was also Attorney General for Northern Ireland. The separate office of Attorney General for Northern Ireland was re-created alongside the new office of Advocate General for Northern Ireland upon the devolution of policing and justice powers to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 2010.

Scotland
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown in Scotland
Under the recent constitutional reforms, the Lord Advocate has become an officer of the Scottish Government, while the United Kingdom Government is advised on Scots law by the Advocate General for Scotland.

The Lord Advocate is assisted by the Solicitor General for Scotland.

Other attorneys-general in the UK
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown (Other persons)
Main article: Law Officers of the Crown (Other persons)
The Attorney General of the Duchy of Cornwall is the chief legal adviser to the Prince of Wales, and there is a separate Attorney General for the Duchy of Lancaster, an appointment that is held by the Crown.

United States
Main articles: United States Attorney General and State attorney general
See also: District attorney and United States Attorney
In the federal government of the United States, the Attorney General is a member of the Cabinet and, as head of the Department of Justice, is the top law enforcement officer and lawyer for the government. The Attorney General may need to be distinguished from the Solicitor General, a high Justice Department official with the responsibility of representing the government before the Supreme Court. In cases of exceptional importance, however, the Attorney General may choose personally to represent the government to the Supreme Court.

The individual U.S. states and territories, as well as the federal district of Washington, D.C. also have attorneys general with similar responsibilities. The majority of state attorneys general are chosen by popular election, as opposed to the U.S. Attorney General, who is a presidential appointee confirmed by the Senate.

In nearly all United States jurisdictions the attorney general is the chief law enforcement officer of that jurisdiction, and as such attorney general may also be considered a police rank. The proper form of addressing a person holding the office is addressed Mister or Madam Attorney General, or just as Attorney General. The plural is "Attorneys General" or "Attorneys-General".

Zimbabwe
Main article: Attorney General of Zimbabwe
The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor of the government of Zimbabwe. The office falls under the Ministry of Justice and Legal Affairs.

Similar offices in non-common law jurisdictions
See also: Advocate General and Public procurator
Non-common law jurisdictions usually have one or more offices which are similar to attorneys-general in common law jurisdictions, some of which use "attorney-general" as the English translation of their titles.

Afghanistan
Main article: Attorney General's Office of Afghanistan
Brazil
Main articles: Attorney General of the Union and Prosecutor General of the Republic
Crimea
Main article: Prosecutor General of the Republic of Crimea
Dominican Republic
Main article: Attorney General of the Republic (Dominican Republic)
Germany
Main article: Public Prosecutor General (Germany)
Hungary
Main article: Chief Prosecutor of Hungary
Indonesia
Main article: Attorney General of Indonesia
Italy
Main article: Ministry of Justice (Italy)
Mexico
Main article: Attorney General (Mexico)
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, there are two types of attorneys-general, that are only historically related.

The first type of attorney-general ("advocaat-generaal" in Dutch) is the public prosecutor in criminal cases at appellate courts.

The second type of attorney-general ("procureur-generaal", while their replacements are called "advocaat-generaal") is an independent advisor to the Supreme Court. These people give an opinion on cases (called "conclusies") in any field of law (not just criminal law), supported by a scientific staff. The Supreme Court may either follow or reject the opinion of the attorney-general (which is published together with the eventual decision). In a way, an attorney-general acts as yet another judge, but in the Dutch system that does not allow dissenting opinions to be published, it is the only way to reflect different perceptions on a case. The Procureur-Generaal also prosecutes members of parliament in the case of misfeance.[19]

Dutch attorneys-general do not normally advise the government.[citation needed]

Norway
Main article: Office of the Attorney General of Norway
Russia
Main article: Prosecutor General of Russia
Serbia
Main article: Public Attorney's Office of the Republic of Serbia
Soviet Union
Main article: Procurator General of the USSR
Spain
Main article: Spanish Attorney General
Vietnam
Main article: Supreme People's Procuracy of Vietnam
Lists of countries, states or territories with attorneys-general

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