Hong Kong (/ˌhɒŋˈkɒŋ/ (About this soundlisten); Chinese: 香港, Cantonese: [hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ] (About this soundlisten)), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HKSAR), is a special administrative region on the eastern side of the Pearl River estuary in southern China. With over 7.4 million people of various nationalities[d] in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated places in the world.
Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after Qing China ceded Hong Kong Island at the end of the First Opium War in 1842.[16] The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 after the Second Opium War, and was further extended when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898.[17][18] The territory was returned to China in 1997.[19] As a special administrative region, Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of "one country, two systems".[20]
Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,[16] the territory has become one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports.[21] It is the world's tenth-largest exporter and ninth-largest importer,[22][23] and its legal tender (the Hong Kong dollar) is the world's 9th-most traded currency (as of 2019).[24] Hong Kong hosts the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world.[25][26] Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, there is severe income inequality.[27]
Hong Kong is a highly developed territory, ranking seventh on the UN Human Development Index.[8] The city has the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world[28] and its residents have some of the longest life expectancies in the world.[8] Over 90% of its population uses public transportation.[29] Air pollution has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in the city
Etymology
Hong Kong
Hong Kong in Chinese 2.svg
"Hong Kong" in Chinese characters
Chinese 香港
Cantonese Yale About this soundHēunggóng
or Hèunggóng
Literal meaning "Fragrant Harbour"
[31][32]
Transcriptions
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese 香港特別行政區
(香港特區)
Simplified Chinese 香港特别行政区
(香港特区)
Cantonese Yale Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
(Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)
or
Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
(Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)
Transcriptions
The name of the territory, first spelled "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780,[33] originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[34] Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese pronunciation hēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour".[31][32][35] "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odor from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour developed.[35] Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.[36]
The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810.[37] The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name.[38] Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC).[39][40]
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
The region is first known to have been occupied by humans during the Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago.[41] Early Hong Kong settlers were a semi-coastal people[41] who migrated from inland and brought knowledge of rice cultivation.[42] The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue.[43] The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse,[44] and recaptured by China after the Han conquest.[45] During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen.[46] By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty.[47]
The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513.[48][49] Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters, and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s,[50] Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549. Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557.[51]
After the Qing conquest, maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. The Kangxi Emperor lifted the prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684.[52] Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton.[53] Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever-more-aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.[54]
In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade,[55] triggering a British military response and the First Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi. However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement.[56] After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking.[57]
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony.[16] Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War. The Qing were again defeated, and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter's Island in the Convention of Peking.[17] By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.[58]
Colonial Hong Kong flag from 1959–1997
The colony was further expanded in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories.[18] The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education.[59] Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike.[60][61] At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port.[62] The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940.[63] The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor.[64] Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before Britain resumed control on 30 August 1945.[65]
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War, and more refugees crossed the border when the Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949.[66] Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s.[67] With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government began reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme, Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC), and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more-reliable transportation.[68][69] Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub.[70]
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979.[71] Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to transfer the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the transfer.[72] The impending transfer triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life.[73] Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996.[74] Hong Kong was transferred to China on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.[19]
Immediately after the transfer, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The government was forced to use substantial foreign-exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis,[66] and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak[75] and a housing surplus.[76] This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.[77]
Political debates after the transfer of sovereignty have centred around the region's democratic development and the central government's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover,[78] the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law.[79] The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing Chief Executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution.[80] Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections[81][82][83] and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy.[84] In June 2019, large protests again erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests have continued into October, possibly becoming the largest-scale political protest movement in Hong Kong history,[85] with organisers claiming to have attracted more than one million Hong Kong residents.[86]
Government and politics
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government.[87] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty,[72] resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.[88] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution.[89]
The regional government is composed of three branches:
Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law,[88] can force reconsideration of legislation,[90] and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials.[91] Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation, and has authority to dissolve the legislature.[92] In states of emergency or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order.[93]
Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting Chief Executive.[94]
Judiciary: The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law.[95] Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the advice of a recommendation commission.[96]
The Chief Executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the Chief Executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1,200 business, community, and government leaders.[97][98][99]
The Legislative Council has 70 members, each serving a four-year term.[100] 35 are directly elected from geographical constituencies and 35 represent functional constituencies (FC). Thirty FC councilors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups,[101] and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting District Council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections.[102] All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting.[101]
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election.[103] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups.[104] The Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.[105] Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college, and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.[95] Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.[106] Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence.[107] However, interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system.[108] Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process.[109] Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.[110]
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,[111] and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality.[112] Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls.[113] Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.[114][115]
The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence.[116] Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces,[117] the regional government may request assistance from the garrison.[118] Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.[119]
The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations.[120] The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies.[121][122][123] The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations.[124]
Administrative divisions
The territory is divided into 18 districts. A 479-seat District Council, 452 of which are directly elected, represents each district and advises the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy.[125] Rural committee chairmen, representing outlying villages and towns, fill the 27 non-elected seats
Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to those narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the legislature since the transfer of sovereignty. Similarly, the Chief Executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected.[127] Although universal suffrage for Chief Executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68,[128] the legislature is only partially directly elected and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.[127] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions.[129][130]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government, and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.[131][132] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.[133][134] Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and are ineligible for right of abode in the territory.[135]
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.[72] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be reintegrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[136][137]
Geography
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River. The territory's 2,755 km2 (1,064 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2 (14 sq mi) is water.[8] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.[138] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories.[139] Much of this is built on reclaimed land, due to the lack of developable flat land; 70 km2 (27 sq mi) (six per cent of the total land or about 25 per cent of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[140]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.[141][142] About 40 per cent of the remaining land area are country parks and nature reserves.[143] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.[144][145]
Climate
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China. Summer is hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February; an occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring (which can be changeable) and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.[146] When there is snowfall, which is extremely rare, it is usually at high elevations. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year;[147] the highest and lowest recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893.[148] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017,[149] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.
Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 317 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft),[28] and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world.[152] The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land.[153] Single-family detached homes are extremely rare, and generally only found in outlying areas.[154]
The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region.[155] Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower.[156][157]
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises.[158] However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong.[159] Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex,[160] and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts.[161] The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure.[162] The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).[163]
Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.[164] Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style
Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after Qing China ceded Hong Kong Island at the end of the First Opium War in 1842.[16] The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 after the Second Opium War, and was further extended when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898.[17][18] The territory was returned to China in 1997.[19] As a special administrative region, Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of "one country, two systems".[20]
Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,[16] the territory has become one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports.[21] It is the world's tenth-largest exporter and ninth-largest importer,[22][23] and its legal tender (the Hong Kong dollar) is the world's 9th-most traded currency (as of 2019).[24] Hong Kong hosts the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world.[25][26] Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, there is severe income inequality.[27]
Hong Kong is a highly developed territory, ranking seventh on the UN Human Development Index.[8] The city has the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world[28] and its residents have some of the longest life expectancies in the world.[8] Over 90% of its population uses public transportation.[29] Air pollution has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in the city
Etymology
Hong Kong
Hong Kong in Chinese 2.svg
"Hong Kong" in Chinese characters
Chinese 香港
Cantonese Yale About this soundHēunggóng
or Hèunggóng
Literal meaning "Fragrant Harbour"
[31][32]
Transcriptions
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese 香港特別行政區
(香港特區)
Simplified Chinese 香港特别行政区
(香港特区)
Cantonese Yale Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
(Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)
or
Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
(Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)
Transcriptions
The name of the territory, first spelled "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780,[33] originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[34] Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese pronunciation hēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour".[31][32][35] "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odor from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour developed.[35] Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.[36]
The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810.[37] The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name.[38] Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC).[39][40]
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
The region is first known to have been occupied by humans during the Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago.[41] Early Hong Kong settlers were a semi-coastal people[41] who migrated from inland and brought knowledge of rice cultivation.[42] The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue.[43] The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse,[44] and recaptured by China after the Han conquest.[45] During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen.[46] By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty.[47]
The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513.[48][49] Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters, and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s,[50] Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549. Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557.[51]
After the Qing conquest, maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. The Kangxi Emperor lifted the prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684.[52] Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton.[53] Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever-more-aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.[54]
In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade,[55] triggering a British military response and the First Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi. However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement.[56] After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking.[57]
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony.[16] Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War. The Qing were again defeated, and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter's Island in the Convention of Peking.[17] By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.[58]
Colonial Hong Kong flag from 1959–1997
The colony was further expanded in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories.[18] The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education.[59] Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike.[60][61] At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port.[62] The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940.[63] The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor.[64] Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before Britain resumed control on 30 August 1945.[65]
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War, and more refugees crossed the border when the Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949.[66] Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s.[67] With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government began reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme, Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC), and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more-reliable transportation.[68][69] Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub.[70]
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979.[71] Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to transfer the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the transfer.[72] The impending transfer triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life.[73] Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996.[74] Hong Kong was transferred to China on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.[19]
Immediately after the transfer, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The government was forced to use substantial foreign-exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis,[66] and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak[75] and a housing surplus.[76] This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.[77]
Political debates after the transfer of sovereignty have centred around the region's democratic development and the central government's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover,[78] the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law.[79] The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing Chief Executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution.[80] Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections[81][82][83] and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy.[84] In June 2019, large protests again erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests have continued into October, possibly becoming the largest-scale political protest movement in Hong Kong history,[85] with organisers claiming to have attracted more than one million Hong Kong residents.[86]
Government and politics
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government.[87] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty,[72] resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.[88] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution.[89]
The regional government is composed of three branches:
Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law,[88] can force reconsideration of legislation,[90] and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials.[91] Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation, and has authority to dissolve the legislature.[92] In states of emergency or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order.[93]
Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting Chief Executive.[94]
Judiciary: The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law.[95] Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the advice of a recommendation commission.[96]
The Chief Executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the Chief Executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1,200 business, community, and government leaders.[97][98][99]
The Legislative Council has 70 members, each serving a four-year term.[100] 35 are directly elected from geographical constituencies and 35 represent functional constituencies (FC). Thirty FC councilors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups,[101] and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting District Council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections.[102] All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting.[101]
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election.[103] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups.[104] The Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.[105] Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college, and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.[95] Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.[106] Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence.[107] However, interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system.[108] Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process.[109] Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.[110]
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,[111] and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality.[112] Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls.[113] Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.[114][115]
The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence.[116] Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces,[117] the regional government may request assistance from the garrison.[118] Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.[119]
The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations.[120] The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies.[121][122][123] The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations.[124]
Administrative divisions
The territory is divided into 18 districts. A 479-seat District Council, 452 of which are directly elected, represents each district and advises the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy.[125] Rural committee chairmen, representing outlying villages and towns, fill the 27 non-elected seats
Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to those narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the legislature since the transfer of sovereignty. Similarly, the Chief Executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected.[127] Although universal suffrage for Chief Executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68,[128] the legislature is only partially directly elected and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.[127] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions.[129][130]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government, and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.[131][132] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.[133][134] Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and are ineligible for right of abode in the territory.[135]
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.[72] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be reintegrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[136][137]
Geography
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River. The territory's 2,755 km2 (1,064 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2 (14 sq mi) is water.[8] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.[138] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories.[139] Much of this is built on reclaimed land, due to the lack of developable flat land; 70 km2 (27 sq mi) (six per cent of the total land or about 25 per cent of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[140]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.[141][142] About 40 per cent of the remaining land area are country parks and nature reserves.[143] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.[144][145]
Climate
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China. Summer is hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February; an occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring (which can be changeable) and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.[146] When there is snowfall, which is extremely rare, it is usually at high elevations. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year;[147] the highest and lowest recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893.[148] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017,[149] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.
Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 317 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft),[28] and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world.[152] The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land.[153] Single-family detached homes are extremely rare, and generally only found in outlying areas.[154]
The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region.[155] Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower.[156][157]
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises.[158] However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong.[159] Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex,[160] and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts.[161] The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure.[162] The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).[163]
Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.[164] Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style
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